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Seeking Meaningful Redress for Korean Forced Labour Survivors
By Emily Jin
ALPHA Education
1
�Introduction
The legacies of World War II remain alive in the everyday realities of many individuals. It left in its wake
unspeakable casualties and untied loose ends for many who survived the atrocities that occurred. One of these
groups that continues to fight for redress are the Chinese and Korean forced labourers who were exploited at
the hands of Japanese corporations during WWII. To this day, there is yet to be any formal acknowledgment
or sincere apology by the Japanese government or Japanese corporations regarding the forced labour and
exploitative conditions that millions of individuals were subject to.1 This paper will focus on the South Korean
context and consider factors that have led to the lack of redress by Japan and, most importantly, what the
implications are for survivors in light of what meaningful justice means to them.
The Post-War Context and the Unites States’ Role
To better understand some of the key factors that have led to the lack of redress and formal
recognition by the Japanese government of the atrocities committed against Korean victims during WWII, it is
important to understand the post-war international context. Namely, how the United States’ Cold War
interests in Asia deeply shaped the ways in which Korea was hastily pressured into entering superficial
resolutions with Japan. Following WWII, the US became actively involved in anti-communism efforts in Asia,
with Japan as a key ally and central player in its regional strategy.2 Moreover, the US supported right-wing
authoritarian regimes in Asia, including in Japan and South Korea, as part of forwarding their single-minded
agenda of anti-communism.3 These developments laid the foundation for the lack of wartime redress that
occurred in Asia following WWII.
An important way in which redress occurs is through “transitional justice”, which is a period following
war or colonization where redress and reconciliation are sought to be achieved through military tribunals,
reparations, and formal apologies.4 A key reason why forced labour issues have been unredressable is because
the post-war era between Japan and South Korea lacked this integral period of transitional justice. While the
post-war period in Europe was marked by transitional justice through measures like the Nuremberg Military
Trials, which prosecuted and sentenced guilty individuals to death or life imprisonment for the heinous crimes
they committed, the same kind of crackdown did not occur in Asia.5
After WWII in 1947, the US’s priority in Asia shifted to blocking the spread of communism. And in order
to forward this interest, it was important for the US to ally themselves with an anti-communist Japan.6 During
the Tokyo War Crimes Trial (1946-48), many top-ranking individuals who were guilty of war crimes were
1
Juana Wai Sum Lee, “The Unsolved Legacy of Forced Labour During World War II in Asia” (master’s thesis, Columbia University, 2020), 11,
https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-cfmk-cz52.
2 Eva Hansson, Kevin Hewison, and Jim Glassman, “Legacies of the Cold War in East and Southeast Asia: An Introduction,” Journal of
Contemporary Asia 50, no. 4 (2020): 496, https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2020.1758955.
3 Ibid.
4 Lisa Yoneyama, Cold War Ruins (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2016), 16.
5 Yoneyama, Cold War Ruins, 2.
6
Hansson, “Legacies of the Cold War,” 496.
1
�exempted from being tried or prosecuted.7 For example, Kishi Nobusuke was a high-ranking official known to
have committed many war crimes, but he was considered a valuable asset for US interests due to his vast
network of connections to financiers and influential far-right nationalists.8 Rebuilding an anti-communist Japan
was the main priority, so the US shaped the kind of redress that occurred, or rather did not occur. In advancing
their priority of making anti-communist allies in the region, the US enabled the dismissal of Japan’s many war
crimes, including the issue of forced labour. Further, by supporting a military dictatorship in South Korea, the
US hastened diplomatic relations and normalization between South Korean and Japan in a way that encouraged
the erasure of war crimes and ignored the importance of redress.9 The authoritarian military regimes in South
Korea, which lasted until the 1990s under US support, were uninterested in taking steps to provide WWII
survivors of sexual slavery and forced labour with redress or reparations.10 It was not until South Korea became
more democratic in the late 1990s that redress activism could more robustly organize and occur.11 The next
section will consider how various lawsuits brought by Korean plaintiffs against Japanese corporations fared
within the South Korean legal system, and the impact, or lack thereof, these rulings have had on bringing about
meaningful redress for survivors. While reading about these legal efforts, keep in mind the role that US
hegemonic interests played in setting the stage for the upward battle that survivors continue to face in trying
to obtain redress.
There are many different factors that influence a court’s decision on any given lawsuit, but in the
context of forced labour lawsuits brought by plaintiffs against Japanese corporations, the decisions have largely
hinged upon interpretations of the 1965 Treaty on Basic Relations Between Japan and the Republic of Korea.
The primary aim of the 1965 Treaty was to settle property claims between Korea and Japan and to promote
economic cooperation between the two nations.12 However, Article II(1) of the treaty also includes a provision
stating that “claims between the contracting parties and their nationals…are settled completely and finally.”13
Interpreting this provision has been at the heart of the legal question of whether South Korean plaintiffs are
able to bring claims against Japanese parties. Japan is of the position that all issues of wartime compensation
were resolved by the treaty through Article II(1), and that this bars Korean parties from bringing wartime claims
against Japanese parties.14 On the other hand, others hold the view that the treaty did not waive the right of
survivors to bring claims by reasoning that the South Korean government must have sufficiently notified and
consulted survivors and potential claimants before signing onto an agreement that seeks to waive their right
to claim compensation.15 Because they failed to do so, some argue that the treaty did not waive the right of
survivors to make wartime claims.
It is also relevant to note that the 1965 Treaty was signed during a period of authoritarian rule in South
Korea in the Cold War context described in the above section. As such, the government at the time prioritized
7
Yoneyama, Cold War Ruins, 31.
Ibid.
9 Yoneyama, Cold War Ruins, 3.
10 Lee, “The Unsolved Legacy of Forced Labour,” 27.
11 Lee, “The Unsolved Legacy of Forced Labour,” 27.
12
Victor Cha, “Bridging the Gap: The Strategic Context of the 1965 Korea–Japan Normalization Treaty,” Korean Studies 20 (1996), 124.
13 “Japan–Korea Treaty on Basic Relations,” International Legal Materials 4, no. 5 (1965): 924-27, https://doi:10.1017/S0020782900046829.
14 Hyonhee Shin, “South Korea court dismisses forced labour case against Japanese firms,” Reuters, June 7, 2021,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/south-korea-court-dismisses-forced-labour-case-against-japanese-firms-2021-06-07/.
15
Lee, “The Unsolved Legacy of Forced Labour,” 14.
8
2
�economic and political development over seeking accountability for wartime victims.16 This post-war period of
authoritarian rule and heavy US influence in South Korea not only failed to bring about a period of transitional
justice, but hasty attempts to normalize relations between South Korea and Japan and the disproportionate
focus on economic development led to the signing of a treaty that would go on to pose a significant legal hurdle
for victims seeking redress.
Nevertheless, there have been several decisions by South Korean courts that have ruled in favour of
Korean plaintiffs in forced labour cases, starting with a landmark ruling in 2012 by the Supreme Court of Korea
recognizing the right of Korean forced labour victims to claim compensation from Japan.17 This decision
indicated that South Korean courts were willing to interpret the 1965 Treaty in a way that is sympathetic to
the goals of redress and accountability. And in 2018, the Supreme Court once again ruled in favour of Korean
plaintiffs in two separate cases, one against Nippon Steel and the other against Mitsubishi Heavy Industries.18
The Supreme Court ordered both defendant companies to pay compensation to the plaintiff parties and reaffirmed that the 1965 Treaty did not terminate the rights of forced labour victims to seek reparations.19
However, legal victories amount to nothing more than symbolic victories if not accompanied by willingness on
the part of the Japanese government and corporations to provide meaningful redress to survivors. Although
these legal rulings in favour of Korean plaintiffs are a non-negligible step forward in obtaining justice for forced
labour victims, it has yet to produce tangible results, whether that be formal apologies or monetary
compensation.
Nippon Steel and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries did not accept the 2018 Supreme Court rulings against
them and maintained the Japanese government’s position that the 1965 Treaty bars South Korean nationals
from making wartime compensation claims against Japan.20 As such, the companies have not paid the
compensation amounts they were ordered to pay. The 2018 decisions escalated diplomatic conflict between
South Korea and Japan, as Japan condemned the Supreme Court’s decisions and South Korean courts took
steps to enforce the ruling.21 In December 2019, the Daegu District Court approved a request by plaintiffs from
the Nippon Steel case to seize the company’s local assets in light of the company’s lack of response to the
Supreme Court’s order that they pay compensation.22 In this way, South Korean courts have tried to exert
domestic pressure on Japanese corporations to make reparations, but such efforts led to a trade war and
serious political tension between the two countries.23 Given the ways in which the issue of forced labour
compensation seems to unavoidably trigger further issues of international relations and diplomacy, the process
of achieving redress for victims is plagued by complex barriers that go beyond the scope of the courts. But in
order to fully assess the limitations of the legal system and consider alternative paths to obtaining redress, it
16
Ibid.
“Supreme Court of Korea: Ruling of the First Petty Bench on Case No. 22549 of 2009 다 on Claim for Compensation,” (May 24, 2012) [in
Korean].
18 Youkyung Lee, “South Korea–Japan Feud Deepens Over Mitsubishi Forced Labor Case,” Time, November 29, 2018,
https://time.com/5466430/south-korea-japan-wwii-mitsubishi-compensation/.
19 Tong-Hyung Kim, “Court orders Japan company to pay 4 Koreans for forced labor,” AP News, October 30, 2018,
https://apnews.com/article/474886c44d2c498e94e90c0a8abc5f6.
20 Ibid.
21 Lee, “The Unsolved Legacy of Forced Labour,” 45.
22 Lee, “The Unsolved Legacy of Forced Labour,” 46.
23
Ibid.
17
3
�is integral that the demands of survivors and what meaningful redress means to them are at the center of these
discussions.
Meaningful Redress
While pursuing legal victories is one channel through which redress activism can occur, as we have
seen, even the highest court of the land ruling in favour of survivors does not automatically lead to meaningful
redress being achieved. But what constitutes meaningful redress? And what do survivors really want? Although
the Chinese context is distinct in many ways from the Korean one, the three non-negotiable demands that have
been articulated by the Chinese forced labour redress movement are informative of what Korean survivors also
seek from Japan: (1) Acknowledgment of the atrocities committed and an apology for these crimes; (2)
Constructing a memorial to memorialize victims and educate the public; (3) Compensation for victims.24 These
demands are echoed by Korean activists, with key demands being a sincere public apology, acknowledgment
by the Japanese government and corporations of the atrocities they committed, and payment of damages.25
Meaningful redress to survivors includes, at its core, genuine acknowledgments and apologies from the
wrongful parties, and this is something that goes beyond the mere payment of monetary compensation. As
such, purely monetary settlements or court orders for the payment of damages is not enough. However, given
that even the payment of court-ordered damages to Korean plaintiffs has been met with significant resistance
from the Japanese parties, there is yet a steep uphill battle to climb in obtaining all of the key demands of
meaningful redress. And given the nature of these demands, the legal system is not equipped to be the sole
channel through which redress activism occurs.
South Korea’s 2023 Plan to Compensate Forced Labour Victims
In March 2023, the South Korean government announced a plan to compensate forced labour victims
through a public foundation funded by South Korean corporations who economically benefitted from the 1965
Treaty.26 What is notable about this plan is that none of the guilty Japanese parties are required to contribute
to this fund.27 The South Korean government expressed that it merely hopes that Japanese corporations will
consider providing voluntary contributions, and is unwilling to exert any kind of pressure to compel this.28 The
motivation behind this decision is a political one, as South Korea’s government seeks to amend its relations
with Japan in order to secure stronger diplomatic relations and security cooperation with the country amidst
North Korea’s nuclear ambitions.29 Especially in light of the 2018 Supreme Court ruling and the strained
24
Ivy Lee, “Toward Reconciliation: The Nishimatsu Settlements for Chinese Forced Labor in World War II,” The Asia-Pacific Journal 8(32), no. 6,
(2010), 4.
25 Lee, “The Unsolved Legacy of Forced Labour,” 38.
26 “S Korea announced plan to resolve row over Japan forced labour,” Aljazeera, March 6, 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/6/skorea-announces-plan-to-resolve-row-over-japan-forced-labour.
27 Ibid.
28 Aljazeera, “S Korea announced plan to resolve row over Japan forced labour.”
29 Michelle Ye Hee Lee, “South Korea to compensate victims of Japan’s wartime forced labor,” The Washington Post, March 6, 2023,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/06/south-korea-japan-forced-labor-compensation/.
4
�relations between South Korea and Japan that followed, the US has also pressed the two nations to improve
their relations.30 As such, the US welcomed the proposed plan and applauded it as a move towards
“coordination and partnership for two of the United States’ closest allies.”31 This is once again an example of
how removed political bodies, including the US, continue to subordinate and ignore the interests of survivors
seeking redress in favour political and economic goals.
This development has been met with heavy criticism from survivors as the plan fails to hold Japan
accountable in any way for the atrocities committed.32 As discussed in the above section, meaningful redress
must include sincere apologies, acknowledgments, and compensation by the Japanese government and
corporations. Through this decision, the South Korean government has revealed its prioritization of amending
its relations with Japan over the demands of survivors. The proposed fund is to be distributed to the plaintiffs
from the 2018 Supreme Court cases, but the surviving plaintiffs have already stated that they will refuse the
money, expressing their grave disapproval with the way in which the South Korean government seeks to sweep
this issue under the rug.33 This is a unilateral move by the South Korean government to dismiss the forced
labour redress movement, and we have yet to see how they will or will not respond to the fervent opposition
expressed by survivors, who are the very individuals the proposed fund is supposed to address. This is a
demonstration of the continued failure to center the interests of survivors in the government’s attempts to
resolve this issue.
Conclusion
Given the ways in which the demands of the forced labour redress movement are so intricately tied to
political, economic, and transnational interests, survivors continue to face numerous challenges in their battle
to obtain meaningful redress. As well, the core demands of survivors – apology, acknowledgment, and
compensation – all require a level of willingness by the relevant Japanese parties to meaningfully reflect on
their past and take steps to rectify the harm they caused. This is an ideal situation that may seem far out of
reach, but it is the hope of survivors and supporters of survivors that alongside the redress activism that
continues on, the broader international public will be educated about WWII history in Asia, so that these
atrocities will not be forgotten in our collective memories.
30
Jean Mackenzie and Nicholas Yong, “South Korea to compensate victims of Japan’s wartime forced labour,” BBC News, March 6, 2023,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-64858944.
31 Aljazeera, “S Korea announced plan to resolve row over Japan forced labour.”
32 Mackenzie, “South Korea to compensate victims of Japan’s wartime forced labour.”
33
Ibid.
5
�Bibliography
Cha, Victor. “Bridging the Gap: The Strategic Context of the 1965 Korea–Japan Normalization Treaty.” Korean
Studies 20 (1996): 123-60. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23719605.
Hansson, Eva, Kevin Hewison, and Jim Glassman, “Legacies of the Cold War in East and Southeast Asia: An
Introduction.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 50, no. 4 (2020): 493-510.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2020.1758955.
“Japan–Korea Treaty on Basic Relations.” International Legal Materials 4, no. 5 (1965): 924-27.
https://doi:10.1017/S0020782900046829.
Kim, Tong-Hyung. “Court orders Japan company to pay 4 Koreans for forced labor.” AP News, October 30,
2018. https://apnews.com/article/474886c44d2c498e94e90c0a8abc5f6d.
Lee, Ivy. “Toward Reconciliation: The Nishimatsu Settlements for Chinese Forced Labor in World War II.” The
Asia-Pacific Journal 8(32), no. 6, (2010).
Lee, Juana Wai Sum. “The Unsolved Legacy of Forced Labour During World War II in Asia.” Master’s thesis,
Columbia University, 2020. https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-cfmk-cz52.
Lee, Michelle Ye Hee. “South Korea to compensate victims of Japan’s wartime forced labor.” The Washington
Post, March 6, 2023. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/06/south-korea-japan-forcedlabor-compensation/
Lee, Youkyung. “South Korea–Japan Feud Deepens Over Mitsubishi Forced Labor Case.” Time, November 29,
2018. https://time.com/5466430/south-korea-japan-wwii-mitsubishi-compensation/
Mackenzie, Jean, and Nicholas Yong. “South Korea to compensate victims of Japan’s wartime forced labour.”
BBC News, March 6, 2023. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-64858944.
“S Korea announced plan to resolve row over Japan forced labour.” Aljazeera, March 6, 2023.
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/6/s-korea-announces-plan-to-resolve-row-over-japanforced-labour
Shin, Hyonhee. “South Korea court dismisses forced labour case against Japanese firms.” Reuters, June 7,
2021. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/south-korea-court-dismisses-forced-labour-caseagainst-japanese-firms-2021-06-07/.
Yoneyama, Lisa. Cold War Ruins. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2016.
6
�
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Seeking Meaningful Redress for Korean Forced Labour Survivors
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With a focus on South Korean forced labour lawsuits after World War II in Asia, this paper considers factors that have led to the lack of redress by Japan and, most importantly, what the implications are for survivors in light of what meaningful justice means to them.
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3f66aa840163b77049878cd5a3088078
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Text
Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal: Research Memorandum
By Zhirui Guan
ALPHA Education
0
�Introduction
This memorandum examines the historical and legal significance of the Nanjing War Crimes
Tribunal, which tried Japanese war criminals in the wake of their atrocities during WWII. By examining
primary documents that marked the tribunal’s establishment and delineated its jurisdiction, my
discussion focuses on the statutory and common law sources that the court employed in the trials. While
my research was initially driven by broad questions concerning the justice in the trials’ procedure and
outcome, it also necessitated an in-depth overview of the system of international war crime laws that
was developed after WWI. By adopting that system and importing additional provisions from its domestic
criminal law, the Republican Chinese government has provided a highly detailed and targeted body of law
that never lost sight of the particular criminals they were meant to apply to.
Discussion
1. Jurisdiction and Background
Since the end of WWI, a system of military common law has been applied in military courts to try
war criminals. This law of war is international law, and while it is not created and enacted by the
legislature of any particular country, it can be administered by courts that are commissioned and
equipped to do so. The UNWCC characterizes the international law of war as a “standard certain” similar
to the common law.1 That is, like the common law, it presumably flexible (as in not static) enough to
meet the demand of justice. In particular, this body of jurisprudence finds its sources in the Hague and
Geneva Conventions, whose written accords are the “nearest approach to legislation possible” in the
post-WWII state of international relations. In addition, the United States Supreme Court points out that
the principle of individual responsibility is also a necessary condition of the establishment of this system
of law, which in turn defines that responsibility.2 As such, the punishment of individual war criminals for
breach of the law of war is supported by both the written and unwritten rules of international law.
A further necessary condition to the operation of this system of military common law is the
concept of “universality of jurisdiction,” which allows courts of one state to try accused persons who are
not nationals of that state for acts not committed within the territorial boundaries of that state.3 This
means a municipal court with a definite local jurisdiction during times of peace might, with the special
commission by the UNWCC, obtain special jurisdiction over persons normally outside the custody of the
court. In this way, the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal, like other courts commissioned to try WWII criminals,
acquires the jurisdiction to try Japanese war criminals.
On July 3rd, 1946, the Tribunal was established by equipping the former Army Headquarters
1
Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals selected and prepared by The United Nations War Crimes Commission. Vol XV, London: His
majesty’s Stationery Office, 1949, vii-viii.
2 Ibid, x, xv-xvi.
3 Ibid, 23, 26.
1
�Military Tribunal with broad jurisdiction to try war criminals who committed crimes in China.4 In an
article by the Central Daily, the establishment of the Tribunal was mentioned in the same breath with the
ongoing effort to extradite the most prominent Japanese war criminals who were responsible for the
Nanjing Massacre.5 In fact, the need to extradite these individuals had been contemplated earlier, in June
of 1946, when the Temporary Senate of Nanjing organized the Investigative Commission on the Nanjing
Massacre.6 In a meeting, the Commission decided to apply for extradition of the three major culprits of
the Nanjing Massacre to China. On July 26th, an official telegram was sent to the ROC government, to be
redirected to the IMTFE to extradite the said criminals. The reasons given for putting them on trial in
China instead of in Tokyo was to “symbolically settle the score”: “最好的象征请算法,自然无过于公开
审讯他们的渠魁,并明证其罪刑,垂为千秋万世的炯戒.” 7 The purpose, therefore, of trying the
culprits of the Massacre in Nanjing, was not just to sentence them to penal punishment, but also to
condemn them morally in the city where they committed the war crimes.
2. Rules and Process
The “Ordinance” issued on October 23rd, 1946 by the ROC government defines both the
substantive rules and the procedural basis of the trials.8 Article I, specifying the applicable rules in the
trials, points out that while the rules of international law are the primary basis for trial and punishment
of war criminals, “the present law is also applicable, to which the Criminal Code of the ROC is a
supplement, to be used in cases not provided for under the former statutes.” 9 As such, while
international law served as the bedrock of the trials, laws made by the ROC government for the specific
purpose of the tribunal, as well as ROC criminal law, were also applicable. This three-tiered structure of
legal rules, to me, shows thoroughness in preparation and a determination to offer solid legal grounds
for the tribunal’s ultimate convictions.
The three main categories of offences identified by the Ordinance and other documents of the
Tribunal are i) crimes against peace, ii) war crimes, and iii) crimes against humanity. (The UNWCC report
notes that “the Chinese court does not examine how closely an accused must be shown to have been to
the planning and waging of aggressive war before he can be held responsible for crimes against peace.”
It also notes that the Chinese courts mainly tried crimes against peace and not crimes against humanity.
I am not sure that this is correct, because in the Indictment Letter of Kenji Doihara, all three categories
are mentioned.) Article II of the Code lists 38 specific atrocities as indictable offences under the
南京大屠杀史料集 24: 南京审判, 胡菊蓉编. 江苏人民出版社,凤凰出版社. (Historical Documents of the Nanjing Massacre,
Vol. 24: The Nanjing Trials.)
5 Ibid, 46.
6 Ibid, 11.
7 Ibid, 52.
8 There are some inconsistencies between the primary and secondary sources on the date of the issuance of the law or
“Ordinance”. In Hu Jurong’s compilation of Tribunal documents and the UN WCC report, the only Chinese law mentioned was
the “Law governing the Trial of War Criminals”, which seems to be the “Ordinance” that Zhang Tianshu referred to in his article,
The Forgotten Legacy: China’s Post-Second World War Trials of Japanese War Criminals, 1946-56. But the sources are in
agreement that this law (“Ordinance”) was the one applied in the Tani Hisao trial.
9 Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals selected and prepared by The United Nations War Crimes Commission. Vol XIV, London:
His majesty’s Stationery Office, 1949, p152. 南京大屠杀史料集 24, supra note 4, 30.
4
2
�Ordinance. They range from offences on the person, such as murder, mass murder, rape, and kidnapping
children, as well as offences on property and national sovereignty.
With the procedural rules in place, the next question the Tribunal faces is the gathering and
selecting of evidence. To my surprise, the evidence gathering process for the eventual trial of war
criminals started in 1943 and gained apparent momentum after Japan’s official surrender in 1945.10 The
establishment and operation of the judicial and bureaucratic machinery that investigated incidents of
war crimes depended on coordination of local provincial and municipal courts, the Foreign Ministry, the
Judiciary, as well as the corporation of the IMFTE. An article by the Central Daily on January 6th, 1946,
indicates that ROC President Chiang Kai-Shek himself inspected the letters of accusation submitted by
the Nanjing people, which were 1036 in total.11 Moreover, the list of war criminals of the Nanjing
Massacre, compiled by the Judicial Ministry lists 83 individuals and groups who were to be tried. The
extensive administrative resources dedicated to the process of gathering and studying evidence indicate
the ROC government’s readiness and devotion to getting a just result and struck me as proportionate
response to the historical importance of the trials.
3. Trial and Verdicts: Two Case Studies
The trial Tani Hisao, one of the prime culprits of the Nanjing Massacre, is the most cited case in
Chinese sources of the Tribunal, while the only case that made it into the compiled reports of the UNWCC
was that of Takashi Sakai.12
The Sakai case was tried before the issuing of the October laws (the “Ordinance” referred to above)
and the sentence was issued on August 29th. The laws applied in this case were thus not the Ordinance, but
an earlier version that has been labelled as the “Procedure” by Zhang Tianshu and “Rules” by the UNWCC.
The defence of the accused relied on three main arguments: 1) he was acting within the stipulations of the
International Protocol of 1901 where Japan was among the 11 foreign powers that were given the right to
keep troops in certain areas in China; 2) he acted upon the orders of his government; 3) he was not
responsible for the acts of his subordinates as he had no knowledge of them.13 The court rejected each
argument and found the accused guilty of participating in the war of aggression and four other counts of
atrocities under the Procedure. These findings lead to a guilty verdict of a crime against peace, war crimes
and crimes against humanity. The sentence was death. Notably, the finding that he had participated in a
war of aggression against China lead to an automatic guilty verdict of a crime against peace, as the Charter
of the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg stipulated. Moreover, the Tribunal held that superior
orders were not an excuse for the crime. As to the accused’s argument that he could not be held
responsible for actions of his subordinates, the Tribunal found “that a field Commander must hold himself
responsible for the discipline of his subordinates, is an accepted principle.” Indeed, this rule, as mentioned
above, is internationally accepted as a custom of war. I realize that it is a fundamental rule that the finding
of individual liability in any war crime proceeding necessarily depends on. For if a lower-ranking officer
南京大屠杀史料集 24, supra note 4, 10.
Ibid, 50.
12 Law Reports, Vol. XIV, 1.
13 Ibid, 2.
10
11
3
�could transfer both their mens rea and their commission of the prohibited act to either their higherranking counterpart or their subordinates, there would be no cognizable way of assigning criminal
responsibility.
On October 19th, 1946, the Tribunal began to hear the case against Tani. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the
third ground of defence pleaded by Sakai were also used in the defence of Tani, coupled with the new
assertions that he was not aware of what his subordinates did and there was no sufficient evidence to
incriminate his subordinates. These arguments were again rebutted by the Tribunal’s doctrine of individual
responsibility. Tani, too, was sentenced to death.14
Conclusion & Reflection
In Timothy Brook’s work on the Tokyo Judgment and the Rape of Nanjing, he argues that the
adequacy of judgment can be measured only in terms of 1) the validity of the laws invoked and 2) the
success with which the rights of the defendants were protected. He claims, quoting Justice Radhabinod
Pal of the IMFTE, that the number of convictions it produced or the quota of retribution it conferred on
behalf of war victims are not suitable yardsticks to accurately measure the adequacy of the judgment.15
More importantly, he also questions the overall effectiveness of relying on the adversarial process in a
courtroom to effectuate “the final moment in a story of war.”16 While I find this criticism reasonable, I
also sympathize with those who desire retributive justice against the perpetrators of war crimes. Where,
if not a courtroom, shall we settle the score of war? It is true that we should beware of the danger of
“victor’s justice” overtaking the actual attainment of justice, but I believe that the benefit of a trial
outweighs its detrimental effects. Not only does a trial offer an opportunity for personal and collective
catharsis to the victims of war crimes, but it is also a publicized event that lays official blame on criminals
whose conviction serves a deterrent function for society in general.
Overall, I believe the procedural and substantive rules set out by the Tribunal are valid because
they are based on internationally recognized legal norms as well as a nuanced recognition of the actual
atrocities that took place on Chinese soil during Japanese invasion. Of course, further inquiry into the trial
process would perhaps reveal more insights on the matter.
During the past school year, by examining sources that were available to me online and in the
university library, I obtained an introductory view of the Nanjing Trials. I also realized that without the
guidance and academic framework of a law school course, it is hard for an individual with a decent
historical research skillset to truly appreciate the significance of certain legal and historical issues that
the trials give rise to. In the future, I hope to study international criminal law in more depth when I will
for certain revisit the questions I considered here.
南京大屠杀史料集 24, supra note 4, 386-395.
Timothy Brook. “The Tokyo Judgment and the Rape of Nanking Author(s),” The Journal of Asian Studies, Aug 2001, Vol. 60, No. 3
(Aug, 2001), pp. 673-700.
16 Ibid, 674.
14
15
4
�Acknowledgements
I am grateful for the help and encouragement from ALPHA staff members, Sophie, Flora,
Charmaine, who kindly lent me books from the museum collection, and I thank Tony for his brief but
helpful advice on engaging with traumatic topics in writing this memo.
5
�Bibliography
南京大屠杀史料集 24: 南京审判, 胡菊蓉编. 江苏人民出版社,凤凰出版社. (Hu, Jurong, ed. Historical
Documents of the Nanjing Massacre, Vol. 24: The Nanjing Trials. Jiangsu: Jiangsu Renmin Press,
2006.)
Brook, Timothy. “The Tokyo Judgment and the Rape of Nanking,” The Journal of Asian Studies 60, No. 3
(Aug, 2001): 673-700.
Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals selected and prepared by The United Nations War Crimes
Commission. Vol XV, XIV, London: His majesty’s Stationery Office, 1949.
6
�
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Using primary sources, this brief memorandum examines the historical and legal significance of the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal, which tried Japanese war criminals in the wake of their atrocities during WWII. This memo focuses on the statutory and common law sources that the court employed in the trials and offers an overview of international law developed after World War I.
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Text
OVERVIEW
A discussion paper suitable for educators and
researchers interested in igniting discourse on the
complex issues surrounding Japanese Military
Sexual Slavery during World War II.
By Ranesh Sirimanne
MEMORIES OF THE SILENCED:
FROM SURVIVORS TO ACTIVISTS
A Discussion Guide on the documentary 50 Years of Silence
�Table of Contents
Introduction
3
Using this Guide
4
Background Information
5
History of the Japanese Military Sexual Slavery (JMSS) System
5
The Victims of JMSS
5
Key and Connected Issues
8
Narratives as Sites of Agency
9
Gender Hierarchies Established by Colonial Patriarchy
10
Hegemonic Masculinity
11
Concluding Remarks
12
Discussion Questions
13
50 Years of Silence: A Closer Look
14
Taking Actions
15
Glossary
17
Bibliography
19
2
�Introduction
50 Years of Silence by Ned Lander, Carol Ruff, and James
Bradley1 eloquently illuminates the atrocious abuse endured
by Jan Ruff-O’Herne, a Dutch woman who was enslaved by
the Japanese Imperial military during World War II at the age
of 21, as a “comfort woman” for the sexual gratification and
subservience of Japanese soldiers.
Based on a memoir written by Ruff-O’Herne, this documentary
conveys her story on her own terms, guiding viewers through
her resilience and bravery, as she transforms her identity from
a victim of sexual enslavement to a survivor of patriarchal and
political oppression. She emerges as a valiant advocate,
voicing her unrelenting support for women’s dignity and
representation, and the necessity to remember historical
injustices for the betterment of future societies and protection
of female rights. It amalgamates footage taken across RuffO’Herne’s lifespan, vividly encapsulating the happiness and
growth of a young girl through scenes of her life with her family
and her process of healing through interviews at International
Public Hearings and memorials for war victims.
Cover of the original book by Jan Ruff-
Through this film, viewers will acquire a heightened awareness O’Herne. Image courtesy of Carol Ruff.
of sexual and gender violence, a global concern that still eludes transparent conversation even during
modern times. As students, educators, or ardent pursuers of social justice, may the emotions 50 Years
of Silence evokes bolster your endeavours for upholding gender equality and respect.
Learning Objectives of this Discussion Guide
Understand the significance of agency in narratives, and how the voices of narratives can
eclipse the lived experiences of war crime victims
Analyze the interactions between colonialism and patriarchy in enforcing gender hierarchies
and gender violence
Reflect on individualized forms of gender and the effects of hegemonic masculinity on
scrutiny of conventional gendered presentations and behaviours
1
Carol Ruff, “50 Years of Silence,” carolruff.com, accessed July 20, 2021, https://www.carolruff.com/50-years-of-
silence.
3
�Using this Guide
Discussions on sexual violence and gender discrimination always have emotional impact, and they
may be based on misconceptions and preconceived notions regarding these subjects. This guide aims
to provide discussion on the Japanese Military Sexual Slavery (JMSS) System during WWII in Asia through
a case study, and gender violence and power, through perspectives from systemic levels to
microaggressions of minute everyday interactions. Concepts including the implications of being
ascribed a name, what it means to identify as a particular gender and how we express our individual
identities, are addressed by engaging in conversations on who we are as human beings and how this
informs the way we interact with each other.
The discussion questions and prompts strive to foster empathic understanding of survivors of sexual
violence and enslavement, and to help readers deepen their understanding of the aforementioned
themes and incorporate their own experiences and values. While the discussion questions and prompts
address numerous themes, readers have the liberty of selecting those that have the most meaning in
their lives, or those they wish to learn more about. Additionally, the Guide provides readers ways of
addressing gender inequalities or prejudices in their social circles or local communities. Readers are
empowered when making the minutest contributions towards gender equality, their actions can be
facilitated through development of active and sincere listening skills.
The topics and terms used in 50 Years of Silence can be triggering to individuals. In light of this, educators
and facilitators are recommended to prioritize the mental health and well-being of the documentary’s
viewer), and establish a safe space for expression, where they may seek professional assistance should
the need arise.
4
�Background Information
History of the Japanese Military Sexual Slavery (JMSS) System
The “Shanghai Incident” of 1932 is widely considered to have birthed the first “comfort stations”
originally established by the Japanese Navy, after the Imperial Army’s invasion into Shanghai following
their capturing of Manchuria in 1931.2 Despite the prohibition on prostitution in Shanghai by the Chinese
government,3 the Japanese Navy had employed prostitutes as “waitresses” in local Japanese
restaurants, and these “comfort stations” were for the exclusive use of Japanese navy personnel. 4
In March 1932, the Japanese Military pursued equivalent ominous pleasures as those enforced by their
naval counterparts. Under the leadership of General OKAMURA Yasuji, these “comfort stations” were
introduced to minimize acts of rape instigated by military personnel against local civilians. However,
subsequent events including the 1938 invasion of Wuhan proved that General Okamura’s initiative
failed to prevent widespread rape and atrocities committed against local populations by the Imperial
Army.5 By February 1942,6 the legal characterizations of rape as a criminal offense provides insight into
the Army’s conceptualization and attitude towards rape. Initially, rape was only punished if it occurred
during events of pillaging. Thereafter, the law was revised to only penalize army personnel who
committed rape on Imperial occupied territory.7 This illustrates that rape was considered as a byproduct of casual theft, and that rape on land that was not under Imperial Army governance was
overlooked, as this did not bring shame to the Imperial government. The focus was on the reputation
of the Japanese image, not on recognition of rape as a war crime and inherent form of inhumanity. 8
Furthermore, the consensus among military leadership was that provision of “comfort women” was the
most effective means of satiating the army’s pleasure “requirements”, over alternatives including
adequate home rest and improved healthcare services.9 Moreover, the military could more effectively
control the spread of venereal diseases among their personnel and the occupied territories’
populations, through frequent testing for such diseases by military doctors. This initiative was reinforced
by their preferential selection of unmarried virgin girls to be coerced into their military sexual slavery
system, as this demographic possessed minimal risk of carrying sexually transmitted diseases. 10
The Victims of JMSS
After the colonization of Korea in 1910, changes to land ownership laws resulted in numerous farmers
and individuals of low socioeconomic status losing their rights to live and use land for small businesses.
Additionally, extended periods of dire weather conditions severely impeded the growth of agriculture.
Consequently, marked unemployment and poverty plagued the Korean population in the 1930s and
2
Yuki Tanaka, Japan’s Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution during World War II and the US
Occupation (London: Routledge, 2001), 8.
3
Tanaka, 8.
4
Tanaka, 9.
5
Tanaka, 10.
6
Tanaka, 28.
7
Tanaka, 29.
8
Tanaka, 29.
9
Tanaka, 29.
10
Tanaka, 30.
5
�beyond. The urgency of their economic situation sparked a mass exodus of Korean nationals towards
Japan in search of employment. Alongside occupations such as housecleaners and waitresses, some
young women resorted to prostitution to provide for themselves and their families. 11 However,
approaching 1938, the supply of available prostitutes was deemed insufficient by the Imperial Army,
resulting in their increased involvement in recruiting more “comfort women.” 12 The owners of “comfort
stations” in China were tasked with providing a stipulated number of women for various brothels across
occupied territories. These owners also commissioned their own personnel: Korean labour brokers who
had experience in illicit trafficking of women and recruiting prostitutes in their neighbourhoods. It is
pivotal to remember that these recruitment agents were chosen by the Japanese Military.13 MyungHee Kim highlights that prominent denialist literature, such as The Comfort Women of the Empire by YuHa Park, emphasizes the labour brokers and brothel owners as the agents responsible for recruiting
“comfort women,”14 thereby redirecting the involvement and responsibility of this war crime away from
the Japanese Military, which then denies the systemic organization of the Japanese Military Sexual
Slavery. One prominent recruitment method was deception, whereby young, impoverished women,
aged between 15 and18 would be promised of fruitful occupation in Japan, only to be transported to
a “comfort station” and subjected to sexual abuse and atrocity by the Japanese Military. One survey
in Shanxi Province15 reveals a woman, Qiaolian, to have been 13 years old when she was first forced
into the system as a “comfort woman.”
The recruitment methods utilized in China and the Philippines were distinct and physically gruesome
from those used in Korea. After the Rape of Nanking of 1937
(also known as the Nanking Massacre), personnel
Placing yourself within Jan’s Life Context
commissioned by the Japanese Military were found to
If you were suddenly instructed by an
abduct women from local homes following their refusal to be
authority (e.g. the military) personnel to
enrolled as “comfort women.” Across all the “comfort
pack a suitcase to leave your hometown
stations,” Koreans were the most abundant,16 as the Imperial
during a time of political conflict, what
would you bring with you? Why?
Army feared that usage of Chinese comfort women would
not only exacerbate the local Chinese population’s negative
How do you understand the experience of
being transported to the large house in
views of the Japanese Military, but also that these Chinese
Semarang on a truck?
women may be used for espionage by the Chinese army.17
In the Philippines, young women have been captured off the
streets and forced into small groupings for the exclusive use by the capturing military unit. 18 These
women had additionally witnessed the brutal murder of their family members who had resisted the
abduction efforts by the Japanese Military, before they were repeatedly raped by multiple men
numerous times a day, held in captivity for months and subjected to further physical violence.19
Tanaka, Japan’s Comfort Women, 35.
Tanaka, 38.
13 Tanaka, 38.
14 Myung-Hee Kim, “Dilemma of Historical Reflection in East Asia and the Issue of Japanese Military ‘Comfort
Women’: Continuing Colonialism and Politics of Denial,” S/N Korean Humanities 3, no. 1 (March 2017): 55, accessed July
20, 2022, https://www.snkh.org/include/download_files/v3/1_43-68.pdf.
15 Tanaka, 46.
16 Bonnie B. C. Oh, “The Japanese Imperial System and the Korean ‘Comfort Women’ of World War II,” in
Legacies of the Comfort Women of World War II, eds. Margaret Stetz and Bonnie B. C. Oh (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2001),
3.
17 Tanaka, 14.
18 Tanaka, 49.
19 Tanaka, Japan’s Comfort Women, 46.
11
12
6
�The overarching philosophy that guided the behaviours of the Japanese Imperial Army was their
concept of racial “superiority.” Through their colonization milestones of neighbouring Asian regions,
they categorized the Yamato race, the national race of Japan, as the leading race, with all other races
as inferior, to varying degrees down a hierarchy.20 This was exemplified through their abuse towards
prisoners of war who were subjected to forced labour. They also expected the “comfort women” to
speak Japanese, despite having their own native tongue, and were given Japanese names for the
convenience of the military officers who abused the women. “Comfort women” were attributed
disparate prices according to their race, with Dutch “comfort women” being the most expensive and
reserved only for high-ranking military officials, while Chinese sexual slaves were priced at the least
value, below Korean sex slaves, who were below Japanese sex slaves.21 This alone illustrates the
disgusting racialization of the “comfort women” at the hands of dominant powers during World War II.
F
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20 Oh, “The Japanese Imperial System and the Korean ‘Comfort Women’ of World War II,” 10.
f
21
George Hicks, “The ‘Comfort Women,’” in The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931-1945, eds. Peter Duus, Ramon
o
H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996), 318.
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�Key and Connected Issues
The themes of agency through narrative construction, gender violence inflicted by colonial patriarchy,
and hegemonic masculinity are identified as three of multiple plausible topics for discussion, based on
the events addressed in 50 Years of Silence.
The significance of narrative agency is highlighted through
Media of Communication
damaging constructions of the “comfort women’s” identities even
What are the unique benefits of
in present day conversations. John Mark Remseyer, the Mitsubishi
using film to convey a war crime,
Professor of Japanese Law Studies at Harvard University, ignited
compared to written publications?
contentious controversy in 2021 through his characterization of
How does the making of this
Japan’s wartime “comfort women” as prostitutes, and not sex
documentary and telling her story
slaves, as their earnings were “much higher” and could return home
publicly facilitate Jan’s healing
after settling their debts.22 When an academic, alongside the
process?
renowned reputation of the institution they work for, promulgates
such statements, this forced identity is considered as veritable in the
perspective of public discourse, thereby preventing the actual victims of Japanese Military Sexual
Slavery from revealing their truth. Sociologist Ueno Chizuko explains this phenomenon as an act of
“adopting an orthodox historical position of owning an objective narrative.” 23 This mechanism
facilitates the production of denialist literature, whereby historians exploit their privilege as researchers
to misconstrue the lived experiences of narrative subjects for the benefit of a nationalist image.
Furthermore, such literature bolsters the marginalization and shaming of “comfort women” and their
traumas with sexual violence,24 labelling them as voluntarily providing sexual services and thereby
misrepresenting their identities as victims and women.
Furthermore, Maki Kimura incorporates Judith Butler’s understanding of interpellation 25 with respect to
identity formation. When Kim Hak-Sun first broke the silence on the subject of Japanese Military
“comfort women”, she enabled the subject of “comfort women” to be “hailed” by major public
discourse, which allowed survivors of JMSS to finally have their voices heard. 26 Through this public
discourse, survivors of JMSS could strive to have the atrocity of wartime sexual enslavement
comprehended as a crime against humanity. This process highlights the importance of agency,
especially in the advocacy efforts of activists such as Jan Ruff-O’Herne.
The second theme of gender violence through colonial patriarchy emphasizes the intersectionality
between racism and sexism that was substantially prevalent in the Imperial Japanese regime. As
described in the Background Information section, the notion of racial superiority is used by Pyong Gap
Min to explain the brutality that coincided with sexual abuse inflicted upon Korean, Taiwanese, and
Chinese “comfort women,”27 among other ethnicities. Min suggests that racial prejudice fueled the
22
Sachiyo Tsukamoto, The Politics of Trauma and Integrity: Stories of Japanese “Comfort Women,” 1st ed.
(London: Routledge, 2022), 1.
23
Yang Li, “Reflections on Postwar Nationalism: Debates and Challenges in the Japanese Academic Critique
of the ‘Comfort Women’ System,” Chinese Studies in History 53, no. 1 (2019): 47, accessed July 20, 2022,
https://doi.org/10.1080/00094633.2019.1689758.
24
Li, 47.
25
Judith Butler, Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative (London: Routledge, 1997).
26
Maki Kimura, “Narrative as a Site of Subject Construction: The `Comfort Women’ Debate,” Feminist Theory 9,
no. 1 (2008): 13, accessed July 20, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700108086360.
27
Pyong Gap Min, “Korean ‘Comfort Women’: The Intersection of Colonial Power, Gender, and Class,” Gender
8
�Japanese Military’s maltreatment of its prisoners of war,28 and this was an ideological assertion of
Japanese superiority over subjugated colonies. The inclusion of this theme facilitates readers to
understand the nuanced nature of every survivor of sexual violence, and how intersections of their
racial and gender identities predispose them to unique microaggressions.
The third theme of hegemonic masculinity invites readers to contemplate their individual presentations
and practices of gender identities. Through discussion of this theme, readers can appreciate the
existence of multiple variations of gender identities, and analyze the basis of not only their actions, but
of daily sexist commentary and behaviour that have been normalized and somewhat celebrated by
society as representations as a “masculine” man.
Narratives as Sites of Agency
Jan Ruff-O’Herne’s testimony reveals several salient themes that can set the premise for stimulating
debate. One prominent theme is the construction of narratives, in which the voice of the narrative can
unjustly characterize individuals as victims and sexual slaves, thereby forcing an identity upon these
women. Hanwool Choe’s analysis of interviews with three “comfort women” conducted during the
1990s reveal how the Japanese Military objectified and dehumanized victims of Japanese Military
Sexual Slavery. The military’s primary mechanism involves Other-chosen language,29 referring to the
Japanese Military’s ascribing of Japanese names to the enslaved women, which linguistically prevents
victims from adopting their own national identity and are construed as servants of colonial power. This
also refers to the prohibition on speaking any language other than Japanese 30 during their
enslavement, where breaking of such rules would result in physical punishment. By forcing these women
to only speak Japanese, the Japanese Military suppressed the voices of the enslaved and pedestaled
the Japanese language as the superior medium of dialogue. However, it must be noted that this
language displacement was not prevalent across all prisoner camps and “comfort stations.”
By being given names of flowers,
what identity do you think the
Japanese Military was trying to
force onto Jan?
Moreover, one testimony reveals a victim being given a nickname
of a door number,31 which Choe interprets as ascribing a solely
functional identity, whereby the women exist to provide utility for
the benefit of others. This illustrates why the term “comfort women”
is in fact a horrendous euphemism that glosses over the reality these
women have experienced as sexual slaves.
Maki Kimura explains the significance of breaking the silence
against Japanese Military Sexual Slavery. When individuals such as
Jan Ruff-O’Herne publish their testimonies on their own terms, they
exercise agency.32 In doing so, they are the narrators of their own
stories, and construct their own identities as survivors of militarized
sexual slavery, as opposed to victims of colonial and imperial
What does Jan’s act of cutting her
hair and calling herself ugly reveal
about her views on the feminine
image? How can this be
understood as creating one’s own
identity as resistance to oppressive
forces?
& Society 17, no. 6 (December 2003): 944, accessed July 20, 2022, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3594678.
28
Min, 944.
29
Hanwool Choe, “The Other-Granted Self of Korean ‘Comfort Women,’” Narrative Inquiry 8 (2021): 13,
accessed July 20, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1075/ni.20136.cho.
30
Choe, 13.
31
Choe, 15.
32
Kimura, “Narrative as a Site of Subject Construction,” 14.
9
�powers. This is a powerful recognition of women resisting the patriarchal oppression that has
determined their lives’ outcomes. Jan Ruff-O’Herne’s testimony presents one prime example of
conveying their truth, and using this power to advocate for justice, acknowledgement, and apology
from the perpetrators of these war crimes.
Furthermore, Kimura highlights the role of narrative construction in regaining selfhood, through Mun OkChu’s testimony in 1995,33 in which she reveals the satisfaction and relief of revealing her experiences
publicly. Kimura explains that through narratives, the individual is permitted to process their
experiences, and make sense of the rationale behind them, in terms of the parties responsible. The
recollection of traumatic memories is so painful due to 34a myriad of factors, including the confusion
arising from a shattered concept of personal identity, which is exacerbated by sensations of guilt and
shame. Constructing one’s own narrative enables the individual to realize that they are not to be
blamed for their own sexual enslavement, and that their identities as individuals and women are not
soiled despite the patriarchy’s view of “comfort women” as prostitutes.
“First of all, I would like to say I do not like the word ‘comfort
women’, and I am very strong about this. We were not ‘comfort
women’. We were Japanese war-raped victims.”
What are the key implications of Jan’s statement, in terms of who is
in power and the identity she chose?
Gender Hierarchies Established by Colonial Patriarchy
The Male Gaze
“A number of high-ranking military
Japanese walked up and down
and up and down the lifting our
chins from time to time with a stick
and looking at our legs and our
figures.” How does this represent
male dominance and policing of
women’s bodies?
While we appreciate the emergence of agency through
independent narrative construction, Japanese Military Sexual
Slavery, with its naming practices and the acts of sexual violence,
established and reinforced gender hierarchies during WWII, which
are still prevalent in the modern world. Chunghee Sarah Soh
illustrates that the term ianfu (慰安婦), officially and euphemistically
exploited by the Imperial Army, explains the characterization of
these women as tranquil wives that comfort others and ensure their
safety.35 Moreover, Soh explains that the “comfort women” were
considered as gifts to the regime of the emperor.36 These gifts were granted as rewards for the military’s
services to the emperor and the nation; they could seek satiation needs of pleasure and leisure through
these “comfort women,” and thus they would be revitalized to continue battling for their nation.
33
Kimura, 14.
34
Kimura, 14.
35
Chunghee Sarah Soh, “From Imperial Gifts to Sex Slaves: Theorizing Symbolic Representations of the ‘Comfort
Women,’” Social Science Japan Journal 3, no. 1 (April 2000): 67, accessed July 20, 2022,
https://www.jstor.org/stable/30209278.
36
Soh, 70.
10
�Transitioning from the Imperial fascist perspective to that of the
Throughout the documentary,
military personnel under casual situations further elaborates upon
during scenes of interviews between
Jan and Japanese interviewers and
the gendering of “comfort women.” The slang term used for these
during the international public
women was pi, as expressed by Mun Ok-Chu’s testimony in 1990,37
hearing, the camera focuses on the
which means vagina. Soh proposes that these slang terminology
reactions of mostly women, with
men being in the background. What
underlines the patriarchal reduction of femininity to only a sexual
are your thoughts on this? How do
organ with functionality for other’s benefit, 38 and that this sexism
the men’s reactions differ from those
distinguishes the male identity as superior, capable, and powerful
of the women?
to serve the army and uphold the Imperial image, while the
female identity is inferior, only to be valued as an object.
Additionally, Soh expounds the influence of traditional narratives and activity and passivity in sexual
intercourse according to gendered differences. She explains that females are considered as passive
fields waiting to be fertilized by male seeds. Here, sexual intercourse is actively directed by the male
figure, in which females are receptive objects of male fervor. 39 In essence, these narratives construe
women as in need of male initiation, a powerful domination onto sexual subservience. This patriarchal
view of women motivated military personnel’s abuse towards “comfort women” during their acts of
resistance, as violence and sexual intercourse were the primary means for men to relinquish their stress
from battle.40
Hegemonic Masculinity
Hegemonic masculinity is the concept that only a specific group of practices and gender presentations
is acceptable. This group of norms enjoys the highest position atop a hierarchy of genders. The
hegemonic aspect of masculinity permits masculine dominance over feminine identities. 41 This type of
masculinity establishes itself in contrast to other forms of masculinity, including subordinated masculinity,
where hegemonic practices constitute the most ideal and respected image of maleness. As other
masculinities are de-legitmatized and marginalized,42 the identities are left to struggle between
conformity to the hegemony or resistance against it.
Timestamp 19:07 – 20:28:
What does the use of a sword
represent here (in terms of
Imperial power and
domination)? What does the
act of being pinned down by
a man on top represent (in
terms of male dominance in
sex)?
37
Soh, 71.
38
Soh, 71.
39
Soh, 71.
40
Soh, 71.
Nicola Henry explains that rape during eras of armed conflict is a
product of militarized hegemonic masculinity that is bolstered by
culturally-embedded gender inequality and exploitations of
disproportionate power dynamics between genders.43 Hegemonic
masculinity can be observed as the foundation that instills ominous
cultural values regarding sexual intercourse, the sexuality of male and
female. These environmental influences affect the cognitive
development of individuals through habitual exposure to toxic
conventions, by means of learning through social observation, as
41
R. W. Connell and James W. Messerschmidt, “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept,” Gender &
Society 19, no. 6 (2005): 832, accessed July 20, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639.
42
Connell and Messerschmidt, 846.
43
Nicola Henry, “Theorizing Wartime Rape,” Gender & Society 30, no. 1 (2015): 44.
11
�understood by Social Cognitive Theory.44 In light of this, readers must be aware that the soldiers were
considerably younger than their ruling generals, who were adults during WWII. However, individual
agency and motivation behind acts of sexual violence cannot be isolated or separated from
sociocultural influences, as this agency has been deemed to “reconstitute masculine identity.”45
The intersection of power exertion between hegemonic masculinity, imperialism and capitalism can
help to broaden discussions on the rationale behind male perpetration of wartime rape. Henry
highlights that these intersections elucidate upon a collectivistic attitude of military personnel, one that
exploits male privilege and entitlement and internalizes conceptions of superiority in terms of race and
class.46
Concluding Remarks
The themes of narrative as agency, colonial patriarchy and
Constructing your Own Identity
hegemonic masculinity motivate an appreciation of the
myriad of overarching forces that affect the everyday lives of
What are some ways you have chosen to
present your gender identity? Do any of
individuals. Humans exist in complex, interconnected systems
these go against the typical expectations
of interactions and influences, which inevitably reinforce
for your gender?
hierarchies of privilege and power. From the lens of the
Are acts of resistance more powerful when
victims of Japanese Military Sexual slavery, the convergence
they are unique to an individual, or when
of these themes intensifies the trauma and victimization they
multiple people engage in the same act
have experienced. In light of this, 50 Years of Silence
collectively?
emphasizes the resilience of the survivors of this crime against
humanity and the
bravery exemplified through breaking their silence. Every
Are “comfort women” the only victims of
gender is subjected to conflict amidst the backdrop of
wartime gender violence? Who is truly
historical oppression and modern perpetuation of this
responsible for perpetrating rape during
war, especially when both the ‘comfort
dominance in current times, and thus fervent discussion of
women’ and soldiers are weapons of war?
these
personal
themes
can
heighten
readers’
comprehension of their own identities and upbringings.
44
Henry, 49.
45
Henry, 51.
46
Henry, 51.
12
�Discussion Questions
Questions on 50 Years of Silence
1.
“And then of course just when I had finished Teachers’ College, in 1942, the war broke out, and the
breaking out of the war, that was really the end of all my childhood dreams.” Jan laughs when she
says the latter parts of this phrase. How does this reflect her inner state of mind, in terms of
recollecting her past traumas?
2.
Why do you think the other victims of JMSS in 50 Years of Silence did not speak about their
experiences for so long?
3.
How does Jan use religious symbols in her testimony? What does this reveal about her connection
to her religion?
4.
Do you think it is fair for Jan to forgive the Japanese Military for their atrocious acts?
5.
Timestamp 29:40: Do you think this apology is sincere?
Placing yourself in Jan Ruff-O’Herne’s Shoes
1.
What thoughts or fears do you think Jan Ruff-O’Herne experienced before she finally told her family
members about what happened to her during the war?
2.
How do you think Jan’s experiences may affect her children, in terms of the processing of trauma?
3.
How would you feel if your own mother revealed she had had similar experiences in her life, and
never told anyone about them?
4.
If you are female, would you feel more afraid or more comfortable talking to your daughters about
your experiences with sexual violence? How would you feel speaking to other men about this?
5.
Timestamp 40:26: Do you think that a person should be prevented from becoming a clergy member
after experiences of sexual violence or abuse? Does being a survivor of rape truly soil an individual,
insofar that it overrides their devotion and love for their religion?
13
�50 Years of Silence: A Closer Look
Perspective of Jan: The image depicts Jan as a young girl,
where she uses her artistic talents in drawing and photography
to convey her experiences. What does this image represent?
How does it reflect on Japanese powers and the young women
who were enslaved, in terms of the ways women were
controlled?
Screen capture from 50 Years of Silence
Perspective of Wartime Witness: This scene provides insight
into a view of an external observer of wartime atrocities
during WWII during her youth, revealing the notions of
gender and culture in that era. What does this statement
indicate about the conception of female identities during
WWII? What aspects of the place of women in gender
hierarchy does it allude to?
Screen capture from 50 Years of Silence
Post-war Male Perspective from the Media: Immediately
after this statement, the male news reporter transitions to
speak about the weather, trivializing and dismissing the
severity of Japanese Military Sexual Slavery. What does
statement imply about the Japanese attitude towards
acknowledging their wartime military sexual slavery? How
does it reflect on the male perspective of misogyny and
gender violence?
Screen capture from 50 Years of Silence
Post-war Perspective of another JMSS Survivor: Breaking the
silence of such an atrocity may be impossible for some
individuals. There is immense courage, bravery and resilience
required. Victims have been observed to internalize shame
and guilt regarding sexual violence, which occurs alongside
stigmatization of mental health conditions. Why did she feel
that it was necessary to "protect" her sons from her
experience? By not speaking about this atrocity, who else is
she protecting? How does this highlight the individuality
behind coping mechanisms after experiencing trauma?
Screen capture from 50 Years of Silence
14
�Taking Actions
Rape culture exists when sexual violence against individuals is accepted, normalized, and denied as
immoral behavior by the victim, in one’s social circles or larger communities. 47 Regardless of your
gender, you are responsible for calling out sexual abuse if and when you see them, such as witnessing
a girl being touched or cat-called in public. Be careful about using the word “rape” as a synonym for
certain descriptions of sports e.g., “Team A completely raped Team B in yesterday’s game!” especially
on social media, where the veil of anonymity often permits explicit sexual harassment without
repercussions.
Encourage your schools or workplaces to have adequate education on consensual and safe sexual
practices, including examples of sexual harassment and provision of free contraceptives from public
health clinics.
Research on local NGOs that have campaigns or initiatives that advocate for gender equality and
protection against gender violence. Speak to representatives of these NGOs and discover how you
may be able to contribute to their cause.
Plan and hold workshops and forums to transparently discuss mental health conditions, stigmatization
of mental health and normalization of help-seeking behaviors. Ensure these are safe, confidential
spaces for discussion where respect and dignity are upheld.
A Korean survivor of JMSS a memorial statue in Seoul. Image
courtesy of Kyodo News.
47
Jessica Ringrose et al., “Resisting Rape Culture Online and at School: The Pedagogy of Digital Defence and
Feminist Activism Lessons,” in Violence, Victimisation and Young People, eds. Ylva Odenbring and Thomas Johansson
(Cham: Springer, 2021), 129.
15
�Sexual discrimination and abuse can exist in subtle forms that
are often overlooked. Everyday sexism involves how we
respond to sexual abuses that occur, such as commenting on
person’s clothing and how much skin they are showing,
reinforcing stereotypes such as “boys don’t cry”, and using
gendered language during conversation.
What are some common daily interactions that are actually
forms of sexual abuse and discrimination at your school or
workplace? How can you influence others to be more aware of
their behaviours and address everyday sexism?
16
�Glossary
Agency: exercising power or action that causes a specific outcome 48, refers to becoming the subject of
conversation, previously having been ignored as the subaltern49
Colonialism: the policy of gaining complete political control over a territory and populating it with settlers 50
“Comfort woman” (ianfu [慰安婦] in Japanese): a euphemism to label a woman who has been trafficked or
coerced into the “comfort system” to provide for other individuals51
“Comfort women” system: an organized set of procedures established by Japanese Military leaders involving
the exploitation of women for the benefit of the male soldiers 52, best identified as Japanese Military Sexual
Slavery
Denial: refusal to admit the truth or existence of a notion or event 53; in Psychology, denial is a defense
mechanism as introduced by Sigmund Freud, where events are blocked from entering the conscious mind,
so as to protect the individual from succumbing to instinctual drives and psychopathological outcomes in
the long-term54
Discourse: a formal, detailed discussion on a specific subject;55 in the case JMSS, public discourse dictates
the acceptable and normative identities of human gender and sexuality 56
Enslavement: to make an individual a slave for a dominant entity, such as a government 57
Expansionism: a policy that prioritizes expansion, particularly of territory58
Gender: an identity that is constructed by social accepted norms and values, which determines how an
individual presents their identity in terms of behavior and appearance59, it is distinct from biological sex which
is informed by genetics
Imperialism: a political philosophy used by an empire which holds control over dependent territories. This is
done through diplomacy, military and cultural dominance60
48
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “agency.”
49
Kimura, “Narrative as a Site of Subject Construction,”13.
50
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “colonialism.”
51
Choe, “The Other-Granted Self of Korean ‘Comfort Women’,” 1-30.
52
Tanaka, Japan’s Comfort Women, 19-20.
53
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “denial.”
54
Phebe Cramer, “Understanding Defense Mechanisms,” Psychodynamic Psychiatry 43, no. 4 (December
2015): 525, accessed July 20, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2015.43.4.523.
55
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “discourse.”
56
As discussed in Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, 2nd ed. (New York:
Routledge, 1991).
57
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “enslavement.”
58
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “expansionism.”
59
As discussed in Butler, Feminism and the Subversion of Identity.
60
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “imperialism.”
17
�Interpellation: the process by which a subject becomes a part of public discourse when it gains the attention
of society at large61
Marginalization: the process of depreciating and cornering individuals to the outskirts of society62
Microaggression: a statement or act that is viewed as implicit discrimination or prejudice against a
marginalized population63
Nationalism: the philosophy of upholding the reputation and interests of the nation to which an individual
belongs, even if this damages other nations64
Objectification: the notion of characterizing an individual as only an object, devaluing their human
characteristics and rights
Patriarchy: a system of male dominance used to exploit women and govern female sexuality, legitimizing
violence and objectification of women65
Racialization: the process of applying notions of racial discrimination to an individual’s or group’s mindsets
and conduct66
Rape: a forceful act of sexual nature that does not involve the consent of the victim and invokes threat and
violence to commit67
subaltern: in the context of postcolonial studies, this is a term given to a minority segment of society that is
overlooked by the majority68
trauma: In Narrative Psychology, an event that results in trauma disrupts the individual’s sense of timeline of
the event and their perceptions of relationships to other people and places relevant to that event. This can
entail losing a sense of meaning of the event and memory of the structure of the occurrence 69
venereal disease: a sexually-transmitted disease
61
As discussed in Butler, Excitable Speech (London: Routledge, 1997).
62
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “marginalization.”
63
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “microaggression.”
64
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “nationalism.”
65
Carol P. Christ, “A New Definition of Patriarchy: Control of Women’s Sexuality, Private Property, and War,”
Feminist Theology 24, no. 3 (2016): 214, accessed July 20, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1177/0966735015627949.
66
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “racialization.”
67
Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed (2014), s.v. “rape.”
68
Bailey Betik, “Subaltern Studies,” Postcolonial Studies @ Emory, last modified Spring 2020,
https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/postcolonialstudies/2020/02/17/subaltern-studies; also discussed in Gayatri Chakravorty
Spivak, A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1999).
69
Michele L. Crossley, “Narrative Psychology, Trauma and the Study of Self/Identity,” Theory & Psychology 10,
no. 4 (2000): 531, accessed July 20, 2022, https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354300104005.
18
�Bibliography
Betik, Bailey. “Subaltern Studies.” Postcolonial Studies @ Emory. Last modified Spring 2020.
https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/postcolonialstudies/2020/02/17/subaltern-studies.
Butler, Judith. Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative. London: Routledge, 1997.
Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge,
1991.
Choe, Hanwool. “The Other-Granted Self of Korean ‘Comfort Women.’” Narrative Inquiry 8 (2021).
Accessed July 20, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1075/ni.20136.cho.
Christ, Carol P. “A New Definition of Patriarchy: Control of Women’s Sexuality, Private Property, and
War.” Feminist Theology 24, no. 3 (2016): 214–25. Accessed July 20, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0966735015627949.
Connell, R. W., and James W. Messerschmidt. “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept.”
Gender & Society 19, no. 6 (2005): 829–59. Accessed July 20, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639.
Cramer, Phebe. “Understanding Defense Mechanisms.” Psychodynamic Psychiatry 43, no. 4
(December 2015): 523–52. Accessed July 20, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2015.43.4.523.
Crossley, Michele L. “Narrative Psychology, Trauma and the Study of Self/Identity.” Theory &
Psychology 10, no. 4 (2000): 527–46. Accessed July 20, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354300104005.
Henry, Nicola. “Theorizing Wartime Rape.” Gender & Society 30, no. 1 (2015): 44–56.
Hicks, George. “The ‘Comfort Women.’” In The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931-1945, edited by Peter
Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, 305–323. New Jersey: Princeton University Press,
1996.
Hirofumi, Hayashi. “Japanese Comfort Women in Southeast Asia.” Japan Forum 10, no. 2 (1998): 211–
219.
Kim, Myung-Hee. “Dilemma of Historical Reflection in East Asia and the Issue of Japanese Military
‘Comfort Women’: Continuing Colonialism and Politics of Denial.” S/N Korean Humanities 3,
no. 1 (2017): 43–68. Accessed July 20, 2022.
https://www.snkh.org/include/download_files/v3/1_43-68.pdf.
Kimura, Maki. “Narrative as a Site of Subject Construction: The `Comfort Women’ Debate.” Feminist
Theory 9, no. 1 (2008): 5–24. Accessed July 20, 2022.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700108086360.
19
�Li, Yang. “Reflections on Postwar Nationalism: Debates and Challenges in the Japanese Academic
Critique of the ‘Comfort Women’ System.” Chinese Studies in History 53, no. 1 (December 31,
2019): 41–55. Accessed July 20, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094633.2019.1689758.
Min, Pyong Gap. “Korean ‘Comfort Women’: The Intersection of Colonial Power, Gender, and Class.”
Gender & Society 17, no. 6 (2003): 938–57. Accessed July 20, 2022.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3594678.
Ringrose, Jessica, Kaitlynn Mendes, Sophie Whitehead, and Amelia Jenkinson. “Resisting Rape Culture
Online and at School: The Pedagogy of Digital Defence and Feminist Activism Lessons.” In
Violence, Victimisation and Young People, edited by Ylva Odenbring and Thomas Johansson,
129–153. Cham: Springer, 2021.
Ruff, Carol. “50 Years of Silence.” carolruff.com, 2021. https://www.carolruff.com/50-years-of-silence.
Soh, Chunghee Sarah. “From Imperial Gifts to Sex Slaves: Theorizing Symbolic Representations of the
‘Comfort Women.’” Social Science Japan Journal 3, no. 1 (April 2000): 59–76. Accessed July
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Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing
Present. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999.
Tanaka, Yuki. Japan’s Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution during World War II and the US
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Tsukamoto, Sachiyo. The Politics of Trauma and Integrity; Stories of Japanese “Comfort Women.” 1st
ed. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd., 2022.
20
�
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<p><strong>Memories of the Silenced: From Survivors to Activists -- </strong>A discussion guide on the documentary "50 Years of Silence"</p>
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Based on a memoir of the same title, "50 Years of Silence" documents the experiences of Jan Ruff-O'Herne as a young girl enslaved under the Japanese military sexual slavery system and the decades of trauma, survivorship, and activism that followed. This discussion paper is suitable for educators and researchers interested in igniting discourse on the complex issues surrounding Japanese Military Sexual Slavery during World War II in Asia.
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Japanese Military Sexual Slavery, War Atrocities, Human Rights, Justice
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Text
DELVE DEEPER READING LIST
THE APOLOGY
A film by Tiffany Hsuing
This list of fiction and nonfiction books, compiled by
Lydia Bringerud of the San Diego Public Library, explores many viewpoints on and topics related to the
POV documentary The Apology.
The Apology follows three former “comfort women”
who were among the 200,000 girls and young women
kidnapped and forced into military sexual slavery by the
Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. Seventy
years after their imprisonment and after decades of living
in silence and shame, the survivors give their first-hand
accounts of the truth for the record, seeking apology
and the hope that this horrific chapter of history not be
forgotten.
ADULT NONFICTION
Qiu, Pei Pei. Chinese Comfort Women: Testimonies from
Imperial Japan’s Sex Slaves. Oxford University Press,
2014.
Accountability and redress for Imperial Japan’s wartime
“comfort women” have provoked international debate in
the past two decades. Yet there has been a dearth of firsthand accounts available in English from the women abducted and enslaved by the Japanese military in Mainland
China -- the major theatre of the Asia-Pacific War. Chinese
Comfort Women features the personal stories of the survivors of this devastating system of sexual enslavement.
Offering insight into the conditions of these women’s lives
prior to and after the war, it points to the social, cultural,
and political environments that prolonged their suffering.
Soh, Chunghee Sarah. The Comfort Women: Sexual
Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan.
University of Chicago Press, 2008.
In an era marked by atrocities perpetrated on a grand
scale, the tragedy of the so-called comfort women—mostly Korean women forced into prostitution by the Japanese
army—endures as one of the darkest events of World
War II. These women have usually been labeled victims
of a war crime, a simplistic view that makes it easy to pin
blame on the policies of imperial Japan and therefore
easier to consign the episode to a war-torn past. In this
revelatory study, C. Sarah Soh provocatively disputes this
master narrative. Soh reveals that the forces of Japanese
colonialism and Korean patriarchy together shaped the
fate of Korean comfort women—a double bind made
strikingly apparent in the cases of women cast into sexual
slavery after fleeing abuse at home.
Yoshimi, Yoshiaki. Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in
the Japanese Military During WWII. Columbia University
Press, 2000.
Available for the first time in English, this is the definitive
account of the practice of sexual slavery the Japanese
military perpetrated during World War II by the researcher
principally responsible for exposing the Japanese government’s responsibility for these atrocities. The large scale
imprisonment and rape of thousands of women, who were
euphemistically called “comfort women” by the Japanese
military, first seized public attention in 1991 when three
Korean women filed suit in a Toyko District Court stating
that they had been forced into sexual servitude and demanding compensation.
Henson, Maria Rosa. Comfort Woman: a Filipina’s Story of Prostitution and Slavery by the Japanese Military.
Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1995.
In April 1943, 15-year-old Maria Rosa Henson was taken by
Japanese soldiers occupying the Philippines and forced
into prostitution as a comfort woman. In this autobiography, Rosa recalls her childhood as the illegitimate daughter of a wealthy landowner, her work for Huk guerrillas, her
wartime ordeal, and her marriage to a rebel leader who
left her to raise their children alone.
O’Herne, Jan Ruff. Fifty Years of Silence. Sydney: Penguin Random House Australia, 2011.
Jan Ruff O’Herne’s idyllic childhood in Dutch colonial
Indonesia ended when the Japanese invaded Java in 1942.
She was interned in Ambarawa Prison Camp along with
her mother and two younger sisters. In February 1944,
when Jan was just twenty-one years old, she was taken
from the camp and forced into sexual slavery in a military
brothel. Jan was repeatedly beaten and raped for a period
of three months, after which she was returned to prison
camp with threats that her family would be killed if she
revealed the truth about the atrocities inflicted upon her.
For fifty years, Jan told no one what had happened to her,
but in 1992, after seeing Korean war rape victims making
appeals for justice on television, she decided to speak out
and support them.
ADULT FICTION
Keller, Nora Okja. Comfort Woman. Penguin, 1998.
Comfort Woman is the story of Akiko, a Korean refugee of
World War II, and Beccah, her daughter by an American
missionary. The two women are living on the edge of society—and sanity—in Honolulu, plagued by Akiko’s periodic
encounters with the spirits of the dead, and by Beccah’s
struggles to reclaim her mother from her past. Slowly and
painfully Akiko reveals her tragic story and the horrifying
years she was forced to serve as a “comfort woman” to
Japanese soldiers. As Beccah uncovers these truths, she
discovers her own strength and the secret of the powers
she herself possessed—the precious gifts her mother has
given her.
1 | PBS.ORG/POV/THEAPOLOGY
�Andrews, William. Daughters of the Dragon: A Comfort
Woman’s Story. Madhouse Press, 2014.
Stalfelt, Pernilla. The Death Book. Distributed by Publishers Group West, 2002.
During World War II the Japanese forced 200,000 young
Korean women to be sex slaves or “comfort women”
for their soldiers. This is one woman’s riveting story of
strength, courage, and promises kept.
Through drawings and simple text, this book addresses
various questions about death, including why people die,
whether ghosts exist, and what happens at a funeral.
Bracht, Mary Lynn. White Chrysanthemum. Penguin Random House, 2018.
Korea, 1943: Hana has lived her entire life under Japanese
occupation. As a haenyeo, a female diver of the sea, she
enjoys an independence that few other Koreans can still
claim. Until the day Hana saves her younger sister from a
Japanese soldier and is herself captured and transported
to Manchuria. There she is forced to become a “comfort woman” in a Japanese military brothel. But haenyeo
are women of power and strength. She will find her way
home. South Korea, 2011: Emi has spent more than sixty
years trying to forget the sacrifice her sister made, but
she must confront the past to discover peace. Seeing the
healing of her children and her country, can Emi move
beyond the legacy of war to find forgiveness?
Lee, Chang-rae. A Gesture Life. Wheeler Publishing,
2002.
Franklin Hata, born to Korean parents, raised by an adoptive family in Japan and settled in America, is a 30-year
resident of the respectable and traditional New York
hamlet of Bedley Run. Doc Hata is recently retired and
plagued by real estate agents asking if he would consider
putting his house on the market. He has enjoyed success
as a businessman and a neighbor in his community, but
his carefully constructed façade of politeness and prosperity mask a dark and secretive past. The return of his
estranged adopted daughter and her young son cause
Hata to re-examine his past while trying to keep his current life from unravelling.
NONFICTION FOR YOUNGER READERS
Starishevsky, Jill. My Body Belongs to Me. Free Spirit
Publishing, 2014.
Speaking to children on their own terms, this critically
acclaimed book sensitively establishes boundaries for
youngsters. In a non-threatening, engaging manner, this
guide teaches kids that when it comes to their body,
there are some parts that are for “no one else to see”
and empowers them to tell a parent or teacher if someone touches them inappropriately. Telling the story of a
gender-neutral child who is inappropriately touched by an
uncle’s friend, this tale delivers a powerful moral when the
youngster reveals the offender and the parents praise the
child’s bravery.
Lohmann, Raychelle Cassada. The Sexual Trauma Workbook for Teen Girls. Instant Help Books, 2016.
The Sexual Trauma Workbook for Teen Girls offers healing, real-life stories from survivors and powerful, evidence-based tools to help you reclaim your life after
sexual abuse or trauma.
FICTION FOR YOUNGER READERS
Polonsky, Ami. Threads. Disney-Hyperion, 2016.
To Whom It May Concern: Please, we need help! When
twelve-year-old Clara finds a note and a photograph inside
a purse in the mall, she can’t stop thinking about the girl—
Yuming—who made the purse and wrote the message. Like
two kites flying side by side, Clara’s and Yuming’s journeys
weave, bob, and become entangled in this story about the
importance of connections and the power of hope.
Andersen, Laurie Halse. Speak. Square Fish, 1999.
“Speak up for yourself—we want to know what you have to
say.” From the first moment of her freshman year at Merryweather High, Melinda knows this is a big fat lie, part of the
nonsense of high school. She is friendless, outcast, because
she busted an end-of-summer party by calling the cops,
so now nobody will talk to her, let alone listen to her. As
time passes, she becomes increasingly isolated and practically stops talking altogether. Only her art class offers any
solace, and it is through her work on an art project that she
is finally able to face what really happened at that terrible
party: she was raped by an upperclassman, a guy who still
attends Merryweather and is still a threat to her.
McCormick, Patricia. Sold. Hyperion, 2006.
Lakshmi is a thirteen-year-old girl who lives with her family
in a small hut on a mountain in Nepal. Though she is desperately poor, her life is full of simple pleasures, like playing hopscotch with her best friend from school, and having
her mother brush her hair by the light of an oil lamp. But
when the harsh Himalayan monsoons wash away all that
remains of the family’s crops, Lakshmi’s stepfather says she
must leave home and take a job to support her family. He
introduces her to a glamorous stranger who tells her she
will find her a job as a maid in the city. Glad to be able to
help, Lakshmi journeys to India and arrives at “Happiness
House” full of hope. But she soon learns the unthinkable
truth: she has been sold into prostitution.
LaCour, Nina. We Are Okay. Dutton Books, 2017.
Marin hasn’t spoken to anyone from her old life since the
day she left everything behind. No one knows the truth
about those final weeks. Not even her best friend Mabel.
But even thousands of miles away from the California
coast, at college in New York, Marin still feels the pull of
the life and tragedy she’s tried to outrun. Now, months later, alone in an emptied dorm for winter break, Marin waits.
Mabel is coming to visit and Marin will be forced to face
everything that’s been left unsaid and finally confront the
loneliness that has made a home in her heart.
2 | PBS.ORG/POV/THEAPOLOGY
�
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PDF Text
Text
POV
Community
Engagement & Education
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
A Film by Tiffany Hsiung
www.pbs.org/pov
�LETTER FROM THE FILMMAKER
In 2009, a trip to Asia would
change my life forever. That’s
when I first met “the grandmothers.” Prior to that trip I
knew very little about the
atrocities that occurred during World War II in Asia—
specifically,
the
institutionalized sexual slavery system that held captive
more than 200,000 girls and
young women. When I asked
the elders in my family to tell
me stories about the past,
what it was like during the
war, they would shake their
heads slowly and somberly
say, “没 有 什 么 好 的 , 不 好 听
(Mei yoa shimo hao shio de
bu hao tin)” which means,
“There’s nothing good to say,
nothing good to hear.” And
that was the end of my hisDirector Tiffany Hsiung.
tory lesson.
As a “CBC” (Canadian Born
Photo courtesy of Icarus Films
Chinese), I often felt conflicted culturally. The North American approach is to speak out against injustice, while the Chinese way of dealing with hardship is to “吃苦 (chi ku)” which literally translates to “swallow the bitterness.” And of course, one must always “save face” to
preserve pride and honor. I was first confronted with this dilemma at 8 years old, after being sexually assaulted at home by
a so-called family friend. I was paralyzed by the choices I could make, but either way, I felt that my world had already been
shattered. I chose the temporary comfort and safety of keeping silent and, like the women of generations before me, I just
learned to swallow the bitterness.
Fast-forward 17 years, when I would meet the remarkable women in my film The Apology. History refers to them as “comfort women”—a term used by the Imperial Japanese Army to describe the girls and women they forced into sexual slavery.
But to me, they are the grandmothers. What started off as a journey to uncover this dark history of human atrocities soon
turned into an exploration of perseverance.
When Korean survivor Kim Hak-sun first spoke out publicly in 1991, nearly five decades after the end of World War II, she set
off a domino effect. Other women in their respective countries started to speak out, too, and the world would hear testimony
after testimony from hundreds of women describing unimaginable crimes against them with the hope that justice would
soon follow. Twenty-seven years later, their fight still continues.
After the first few years of spending time with Grandma Cao in China, Grandma Gil in Korea and Grandma Adela in the Philippines, it was clear that there was more to this chapter in history, more than just the sexual slavery, more to these women that
people weren’t seeing. I came to learn about their lives after the war and how they survived. The grandmothers had incredible resilience, made tremendous sacrifices and ultimately displayed the true power of the human spirit.
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|2
�BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Meehyang Yoon supports Grandma Gil as she reads her speech in China.
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
Over the course of six years, each of the communities that we filmed demonstrated the importance of camaraderie. Knowing that you aren’t alone and that you will be supported after disclosing your past can make the difference between speaking out versus living the rest of your life in silence and carrying the burden and pain of what you experienced as a victim.
Society has perpetuated a culture of shame that has resulted in decades, or even lifetimes of silence for survivors of sexual
violence.
These days the Me Too and Time’s Up movements are sparking a global dialogue that de-stigmatizes and reframes what it
means to be a victim of sexual violence. The grandmothers have taught me that although my past does not define me, the
journey to come to terms with my past makes me who I am today. Discovering why I wanted to make this film was extremely
difficult, because I thought it was a story I wanted to tell, when, in fact, it became a story I always needed to tell. It’s a story
for the 8-year-old girl within me that struggled to tell her own family about the abuse. It’s a story for all the courageous
grandmothers who survived months and years of sexual slavery. It’s a story for all the survivors who never had the space to
be known outside the ugly crimes committed against them. It’s a story that brings to light the millions of untold stories of
sexual violence that continue to go unheard.
Tiffany Hsiung
Director, The Apology
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|3
�TABLE OF CONTENTS
CREDITS
2
Letter from the Filmmaker
Writer
5
Introduction
Faith Rogow, PhD
6
Potential Partners
Insighters Educational Consulting
6
Key Issues
6
Using This Guide
7
Background Information
7
12
Guide Producers, POV
Alice Quinlan
Director, Community Engagement and Education, POV
Japanese Military Sexual Slavery
Rachel Friedland
Selected People Featured
Community Partnerships Assistant,
Community Engagement and Education, POV
in The Apology
14
General Discussion Questions
Background Research and Writing:
15
Discussion Prompts
Ione Barrows
20
Taking Action
Senior Associate, Community Engagement and Education, POV
21
Resources
Design:
22
How to Buy the Film
Rafael Jiménez
Copy Editor:
Natalie Danford
Thanks to those who reviewed this guide:
Tiffany Hsiung
Director/Producer, The Apology
Japan-U.S. Feminist Network for Decolonization (FeND)
Dr. Alexis Dudden
Professor of History, University of Connecticut
Dr. Jessie Kindig
Author, “'War for Peace': Race, Empire, and the Korean War”
Founding member, Histories of Violence Collective
Editor, Verso Books
Elizabeth W. Son, Ph.D.
Associate Professor, Department of Theatre
Interim Director, Interdisciplinary PhD
in Theatre and Drama Program, Northwestern University
Author, Embodied Reckonings: “Comfort Women,”
Performance, and Transpacific Redress
Fran Sterling
Blueshift Education
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|4
�INTRODUCTION
Grandma Cao.
The Apology follows three women who were among the
Photo courtesy of Icarus Films
more than 200,000 girls and young women kidnapped and
forced into military sexual slavery by the Imperial Japanese
Military in the years before and during World War II. Seventy
years after their imprisonment and after decades of living in
silence and shame, the survivors in the film give their firsthand accounts for the record, seeking acknowledgment and
an official apology with the hope that this horrific chapter of
history not be forgotten. As models of courage and perseverance, they carve a path for others to find reconciliation
and justice. And they challenge viewers to examine why sexual violence continues to permeate military conflicts today.
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|5
�POTENTIAL PARTNERS
KEY ISSUES
The Apology is well suited for use in a variety of settings
The Apology is an excellent tool for outreach and will be
and is especially recommended for use with:
of special interest to people looking to explore the following topics:
•
Your local PBS station
•
Groups that have discussed previous PBS and POV
•
“comfort women”
films relating to war and war crimes, sexual
•
conflict rape
violence, or objectification of women, including
•
constructions of manhood
Lumo, The Storm Makers, The Reckoning, Hooligan
•
gender studies
•
human rights
•
Japan
•
justice
•
Korea
Sparrow, The Look of Silence, Girl Model or
Regarding War.
•
Groups focused on any of the issues listed in the
“Key Issues” section
•
•
•
•
militarized sexual violence
High school students, youth groups, and clubs
•
peace studies
Faith-based organizations and institutions
•
rape
•
reconciliation
•
reparations
•
sexual slavery
•
sexual violence
Cultural, art and historical organizations,
institutions, and museums
•
Civic, fraternal, and community groups
•
Academic departments and student groups at
•
trauma recovery
colleges, universities and high schools
•
war
Community organizations with a mission to
•
war crimes
promote education and learning, such as local
•
wartime sexual violence
libraries.
•
World War II
•
USING THIS GUIDE
This guide is an invitation to dialogue about a very difficult chapter of history. It is based on a belief in the power of
human connection and designed for people who want to use The Apology to engage family, friends, classmates, colleagues and communities in conversations about reconciliation, trauma, and the power of a story to understand the consequences of war and the power of healing. In contrast to initiatives that foster debates in which participants try to
convince others that they are right, this document envisions conversations undertaken in a spirit of openness in which
people try to understand one another and expand their thinking by sharing viewpoints and listening actively.
The discussion prompts are intentionally crafted to help a wide range of audiences think more deeply about the issues
in the film. Rather than attempting to address them all, choose one or two that best meet your needs and interests. And
be sure to leave time to consider taking action. Planning next steps can help people leave the room feeling energized and
optimistic, even in instances when conversations have been difficult.
The subject matter of The Apology is intense and may provoke strong reactions, especially from victims of sexual assault
and abuse, and their loved ones. Facilitators should keep an eye out for audience members who become especially upset.
Be prepared to take them aside and follow up with a referral to local professionals and support services. Remember that
people respond to trauma in different ways. In addition to tears or panic, trauma can look like: “spacing out,” silence,
laughter or jokes during “inappropriate” moments or anger.
For more detailed event planning and facilitation tips, visit www.pov.org/engage
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|6
�BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Japanese Military Sexual Slavery
Dona Baray Garrison, a former "comfort station"
in the Phillippines.
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
Between 1932 and 1945, an estimated 200,000 girls and
young women were abducted by the Japanese military and
forced into sexual slavery in military brothels. Women and
girls were taken from Japan, its colonies, and Japanese-occupied countries throughout East Asia, Southeast Asia, and
times in collaboration with local governments and police; in
the Pacific Islands, including Korea, Taiwan, China, the Philip-
other occupied countries, the military kidnapped women or
pines, and Indonesia, among others. Girls were captured or
forced local leaders to provide them. While women entered
lured away from their families with the promise of a job, then
“comfort stations” under different circumstances, they are
detained in facilities, called “comfort stations,” where they
considered victims of sex trafficking by today’s standards.
were systematically raped and abused by Japanese military
In addition to sexual assault, they endured other forms of vi-
personnel. Throughout history, systemic rape and other
olence such as beatings and stabbings, along with sexually
forms of sexual violence have been used as weapons of war
transmitted infections, unwanted pregnancies and psycho-
aimed at dehumanization, humiliation and the destruction of
logical trauma.[3] Most of the women did not survive - it’s
community bonds, and is now considered a war crime by the
estimated that 87% died as a result of their experiences.
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human
Some survivors were able to return to their families after the
Rights.
war. However, due to cultural taboos regarding sex and
Women were recruited from existing brothels in Japan. In
morality, as well as the complicity of the colonized Korean
Korea and Taiwan, the Japanese government licensed
state and lack of public knowledge about military sexual
contractors to recruit or otherwise procure women, of-
slavery, the women were often viewed as “defiled”, and re-
tentimes through kidnapping or coercion and some-
jected by their local communities.
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|7
�BACKGROUND INFORMATION
In 1990, a coalition of activist groups formed to support the
survivors and demand redress from Japan. Japan had not
A commemorative statue representing a "comfort woman"
outside the Japanese Embassy in Seoul.
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
yet acknowledged its role in the atrocities, insisting that the
women were voluntarily serving as prostitutes. In 1991, a Korean woman named Kim Hak-soon became the first survivor
nations. But many survivors and activists rejected this fund,
to share her story publicly and to demand redress from the
arguing that it framed reparations as a generous moral act
Japanese government. Since then, hundreds of women in
rather than an admission of legal culpability for the govern-
Korea, the Philippines, China and across Asia, many of whom
ment’s war crimes. Indeed, a 2015 agreement between the
had stayed silent for decades, came forward to testify about
governments of South Korea and Japan that established another national fund to care for the survivors still did not rec-
their experiences.
After Kim Hak-soon came forward, a group of Korean survivors who were called halmoni—grandmother in Korean—
filed
a
class-action
lawsuit
against
the
Japanese
government, demanding an official investigation, admission
of war crimes, formal apology, and compensation. In 1992,
after a Japanese historian discovered evidence proving that
ognize Japan’s legal responsibility. Advocates criticized the
2015 statement for its evasive wording about the state’s institutional role in the atrocities and apologetic stance, the
omission of the need for education and memorialization, and
the absence of survivors and their advocates at the negotiating table.
the Japanese military established and operated the “com-
The issue of sexual slavery during World War II is still con-
fort stations”, Prime Minister Miyazawa issued a personal
tentious in Japan, where the public is split on whether
apology and launched two formal investigations. In 1995,
Japanese military sexual slavery constituted a war crime. As
Japan established the Asian Women’s Fund, which pro-
part of the 2015 agreement, the Japanese government called
vided compensation for the remaining survivors
for the removal of a bronze statue of a young girl, which
funded jointly by the government and private do-
memorializes survivors, that was installed across from the
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|8
�BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Japanese embassy in Seoul in December 2011. In January
2017, Japan temporarily recalled its ambassador to South
Protestors gather outside the Japanese Embassy in Seoul for
the 1000th demonstration calling for Japan to apologize.
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
Korea in protest of an installation of another bronze girl
statue near the Japanese consulate in Busan, and in October
2018, the city of Osaka terminated its 50-year sister city relationship with San Francisco over a "comfort woman" me-
and textbooks; and finally, investigation of official policies
morial. As of October 2018, there are 109 similar bronze girl
that established and maintained the system of sexual slav-
statues in South Korea and 22 abroad, including ten “com-
ery; and finally, memorialization of the survivors.
fort women” memorials in the United States.
For further information on this period in history, please see:
Since 1992, activists with the Korean Council for the Women
Center for Korean Legal Studies at Columbia Law School:
Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan (now called the
Military Sexual Slavery During World War II: The "Comfort
Korean Council for Justice and Remembrance for the Issues
Women" – https://www.law.columbia.edu/korean-legal-
of Military Sexual Slavery by Japan) have staged weekly
studies/sexual-slavery-during-wwi-comfort-women-issue
protests outside the Japanese embassy in Seoul. As of 2017,
only 35 of the Korean grandmothers were alive, and their average age was 91. Some of the women live together in group
homes in Seoul, and some attend the protests regularly.
Advocacy groups working with survivors have five primary
demands of the Japanese government. First, an official apology accompanying a Cabinet or parliament resolution
(rather than one that can be construed as one leader's per-
Facing History and Ourselves: Rape as a Weapon of War –
https://www.facinghistory.org/nanjing-atrocities/judgmentmemory-legacy/rape-weapon-war
Fact Sheet on Japanese Military “Comfort Women” (The
Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus)
https://apjjf.org/-Asia-Pacific-Journal-Feature/4829/article.html
sonal view, such as the Prime Minister's letter issued in
2015); second, formal compensation to the victims;
third, lessons on this history in Japanese classes
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|9
�BACKGROUND INFORMATION
A list of names and signatures to be presented
to the UN Human Rights Council.
Sources
Bemma, Adam. “South Korea: World's Longest Protest over Comfort
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
Women.” South Korea News | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 8 Sept. 2017,
www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/09/south-korea-world-longest-protestcomfort-women-170908024721239.html.
Fact Sheet on Japanese Military “Comfort Women” (The Asia-Pacific
Journal: Japan Focus)
https://apjjf.org/-Asia-Pacific-Journal-Feature/4829/article.html
Hsu, Nicole. “Comfort Women Dispute: The Pursuit of Justice
“Sexual Slavery During WWI: The ‘Comfort Women’ Issue.” Columbia
Law School, www.law.columbia.edu/korean-legal-studies/sexualslavery-during-wwi-comfort-women-issue.
Continues”, Claremont Journal of Law and Public Policy, 3 November
Son, Elizabeth W. Embodied Reckonings: “Comfort Women,”
2017.
Performance, and Transpacific Redress. Ann Arbor: University of
“Item 9(a) of the Provisional Agenda.” United Nations Commission on
Human Rights, Economic and Social Council,
http://www.awf.or.jp/pdf/h0004.pdf.
Kindig, Jessie. “Nightmares Must Be Told.” Jacobin Magazine,
www.jacobinmag.com/2017/08/south-korea-japan-comfort-stations.
Lee, Sue R. "Comforting the comfort women: Who can make Japan
pay." University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Economic Law.
24 (2003): 518.
Michigan Press, 2018.
Son, Elizabeth W. “‘Comfort Women’: Traveling Between History and
Hope.” Los Angeles Review of Books, 5 February. 2018,
https://blog.lareviewofbooks.org/essays/comfort-women-travelinghistory-hope/
Taylor, Adam. “Analysis | Why Japan Is Losing Its Battle against
Statues of Colonial-Era 'Comfort Women'.” The Washington Post, WP
Company, 21 Sept. 2017,
www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/09/21/why-
Lynch, Ami. “Comfort Women.” Encyclopædia Britannica,
japan-is-losing-its-battle-against-statues-of-colonial-era-comfort-wome
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 6 June 2018,
n/?utm_term=.a901b78e24df.
www.britannica.com/event/comfort-women#ref1192179.
“Rape As a Weapon of War.” Facing History and Ourselves,
www.facinghistory.org/nanjing-atrocities/judgment-memory-
“The Brutal History of Japan's 'Comfort Women'.” History.com, A&E
Television Networks, www.history.com/news/comfort-women-japanmilitary-brothels-korea.
legacy/rape-weapon-war.
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|10
�BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The ever-shifting sands of Japanese apologies by Tessa Morris-Suzuki
http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2016/02/22/the-ever-shifting-sands-ofjapanese-apologies/
An emotional Japanese university student
thanks Grandma Gil for sharing her story.
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
What happened after the war? (Fight for Justice)
http://fightforjustice.info/?page_id=2770&lang=en
Why did the Japanese military establish the “comfort women” system?
(Fight for Justice)
http://fightforjustice.info/?page_id=2762&lang=en
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|11
�SELECT PEOPLE
Selected People Featured in The Apology
Korea
Grandma Gil Won Ok – 86-year-old survivor living in South
Meehyang Yoon – Co-Chair, Korean Council for the Women
Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan (and frequent
support for Grandma Gil)
Hwang Seon Hee – Grandma Gil’s son
Grandma Cao – 92-year-old survivor living in China
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|12
�SELECT PEOPLE
Selected People Featured in The Apology
Li Gui Hua – Grandma Cao’s daughter (left)
Zhang Shaun Bing – author, Comfort Women Survey Records
Grandma Adela – 80-year-old survivor living in the
Eric – Grandma Adela’s son
Philippines
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|13
�GENERAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Grandma Adela with her friends from Lola Kampanera.
Immediately after the film, you may want to give people a
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
few quiet moments to reflect on what they have seen or
pose a general question (examples below) and give people
some time to themselves to jot down or think about their
answers before opening the discussion:
•
At the end of your discussion, to help people synthesize
What did you learn from this film? Did you gain a
new insight?
•
Describe a moment or scene in the film that you
found particularly disturbing or moving.
•
What was
what they’ve experienced and move the focus from dialogue to action steps, you may want to choose one of
these questions:
•
everyone knew? What would change if everyone
for you?
knew it?
Did anything in the film surprise you? Was anything
•
their main takeaway would be?
If you could ask anyone in the film a single question,
whom would you ask and what would you want to
If you could require one person (or one group) to
view this film, who would it be? What do you hope
familiar?
•
What did you learn from this film that you wish
it about that scene that was especially compelling
•
The story of these women is important because
___________.
know?
•
Complete this sentence: I am inspired by this film
(or discussion) to __________.
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|14
�DISCUSSION PROMPTS
Understanding the Trauma
Grandma Cao and Zhang Shuang Bing.
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
Grandma Gil says, “I didn't know what war was. I didn't know
what men were. I had no idea what was being taken from
me...” What was being taken from her?
Consider the ways that the Grandmas’ physical and emotional scars intertwine. In what ways did their trauma linger
Adela and change her relationship with her son?
For a time, all of the women featured tried to forget the suf-
even after they escaped from the comfort stations? What
fering they endured. How does memory suppression both
are the long-term consequences of:
help and hinder the recovery process?
•
•
•
•
Being rendered sterile in a culture that values
motherhood?
Being raped at an age so young you didn’t know
what sex was?
What do the survivors have in common with other people
who have been imprisoned and tortured? What is it about
their situation that prevented their countries from treating
them as prisoners of war?
Being forcibly impregnated by an enemy of your
country and feeling that there was no choice but to
kill your baby?
Zhang Shaun Bing observes that “Chinese survivors could
Returning to communities where it was shameful
to be a victim of rape?
Grandma Cao’s daughter, adds that many Chinese felt lucky
not speak out. Nobody cared to listen. After suffering, they
just had to swallow their pain and keep silent.” Li Gui Hua,
to have survived the war at all. How were the Grandma’s
Adela’s son, Eric, guesses that his mother kept her secret for
lives affected by returning to communities where everyone
so long “because she wanted to protect the family.” How
was living with the traumas of war? Why is it important for
does the weight of such heavy secrets influence fam-
people to be able to tell their stories and to know that other
ilies? How did finally sharing her secret change
people are hearing them?
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|15
�DISCUSSION PROMPTS
Mourners dress in white during the funeral of a Chinese
"comfort woman".
Constructions of Womanhood and
Gender Roles
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
How do you account for the reaction of Japanese protestors
who call the Grandmas vile names and accuse them of being
Grandma Cao explains, “I can't read. I never went to school.
prostitutes? What do the particular slurs and taunts they use
Only boys were allowed to go, not girls. If they let us go to
suggest about their motives?
school, then I would be able to read.” How did existing sex-
Grandma Adela says she never told her father “Because at
ism contribute to the situation they faced trying to re-create
that time, it was really a great... It's really a shame as a
normal lives?
woman, to be raped.” And she never told her husband be-
The Importance of Memory
cause she feared he would leave her. What does a society
have to believe about the nature and value of women in
order to blame victims for rape?
Scholars have observed that those who tell the stories control the culture. Both Zhang Shaun Bing and Japanese students indicate that the stories of the Grandmas are absent
The co-leader of Japan's Restoration Party, Toru Hashimoto,
from history books. Why have the stories of military sexual
says that Japan should not apologize for its wartime use of
slavery been silenced? Why would it be important for peo-
sex slaves because “sex slavery was necessary.” Others echo
ple in Japan and in the Grandmas’ home countries to hear
his belief. What versions of manhood, womanhood, and war
their stories? Who controls the stories that are included or
are validated by the notion that sex slavery was “necessary”?
excluded from your history books? How have those deci-
How do those beliefs about gender roles compare with your
sions shaped your culture or your understanding of who you
beliefs about what it means to be a man or a woman?
are?
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|16
�DISCUSSION PROMPTS
Chinese villagers say that they “don't like to talk about these
The site of a former Japanese "comfort station" in China.
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
things. Why would we want to? Who would feel happy if
their daughter was raped by Japanese soldiers?” How does
such silence square with the notion that those who are ignorant of history are doomed to repeat it?
The filmmaker asks Li Gui Hua if she will share her mother’s
story with her daughter. She answers, “I will, after she graduates. After she graduates, when she's older. She's too
young now. It might affect her emotionally.” If you were in
her shoes, what do you think you would do? How would you
start the conversation?
At the end of the film, young women speak to the Grandmas. If you were among them, what would you say? What
would your message be?
Lessons about War
Does the fact that the comfort stations were created during
wartime make a difference? What sorts of traumas did soldiers experience that might have contributed to their willingness to treat the girls in the comfort stations as objects?
Grandma Gil says, “We are travelling all over to create a
peaceful world. Not just for Korea and Japan, but for the
world.” How do their stories help bring peace?
Because Grandma Gil was kidnapped from North Korea, and
the conflict between North and South never officially ended,
she was never able to return home or contact her family.
How did the separation exacerbate the trauma?
What did you learn from the film that you could apply to
sexual violence in conflict situations today?
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|17
�DISCUSSION PROMPTS
Grandma Gil speaks at a Japanese University.
The Meaning of Redress
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
Given that the Grandmas’ experiences were atrocities common to war, do you believe that Japan owes them reparations? Why or why not?
Why do you think Japan has resisted accepting legal responsibility for the military sexual slavery system? What’s at
stake?
Meehyang Yoon asks Grandma Gil, “Why do you always hold
it in? Sometimes you've got to let your tears come out.
That's healing. It'll console your heart. Why do you hold your
tears in?” In your experience, what role does crying play in
How does the language used to describe the Grandmas –
the healing process? Why might Grandma Gil hold back her
“comfort women” rather than, say, underage sexual slaves,
tears, especially in public?
prisoners of war, or victims of torture – influence the debate
over apologies and reparations?
Grandma Adela meets with a group of other “Grandmas.”
What difference does it make to have peers who understand
your experience, especially for those who have kept their
Healing
Grandma Gil recognizes that her wounds will not go away
even with an apology, but even though “the scars will remain, my heart can heal. I am waiting for that day.” Why is an
apology such a vital part of the healing process? Why would
the Grandmas and their supporters put in decades of ef-
past a secret?
After Grandma Adela “removes this thorn that's been stuck
in my heart” by telling her son about her past, she says, “My
spirits have been lifted. I feel 10 kilos lighter.” How does
speaking about one’s experience of atrocity aid the healing
process?
fort demanding one?
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|18
�DISCUSSION PROMPTS
At many of their protests and gatherings, the Grandmas and
their supporters sing. Are there circumstances when you
Seoul, South Korea.
Photo courtesy Icarus Films
sing with others? What songs inspire you? Comfort you?
Adela questions the idea of revealing her story: “It's very
shameful to be a victim. That's the attitude in Roxas, in the
Philippines. If you expose yourself, then what for? To be a
hero? When in fact you are a society outcast?” The filmmaker answers, “But you know that... because you're willing
to tell people, that you allow people to feel strong. You do
Additional media literacy questions are available at:
that for other people.” How do the Grandmas who have pub-
www.pbs.org/pov/educators/media-literacy.php
licly shared their stories make others stronger? Did hearing
their stories make you feel stronger?
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|19
�TAKING ACTION
Grandma Adela lights a candle at an altar in her home.
Photo courtesy of Icarus Films
•
Get involved in current actions to stop sexual violence in conflicts. To start, you might look at the UN
Action Against Sexual Violence in Conflict (http://stoprapenow.org/) or consider participating in
observances of International Day for the Elimination of Sexual Violence in Conflict
(un.org/en/events/elimination-of-sexual-violence-in-conflict/index.shtml).
•
In the film, we see one of several statues that have been placed outside Japanese embassies or other
meaningful locations (statue of the sitting girl with the empty chair beside her). Create or commission
your own public art honoring those who have been victims of or fought against sexual or gender-based
violence. Discuss where the art should be exhibited and why. Use the art installation to spark conversations about the issue of militarized sexual violence.
•
Track the current status of Japanese apologies and reparations to the survivors in China and the
Philippines, as well as South Korea and North Korea. Learn more about advocacy efforts to encourage
officials to actively engage in the healing process and compensate survivors.
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|20
�RESOURCES
FILM-RELATED WEB SITES
THE APOLOGY
THE SPACE WE HOLD
https://www.nfb.ca/film/apology
http://spacewehold.nfb.ca
The National Film Board of Canada’s website about the
The interactive web project based on this documentary.
film includes purchase information and streaming clips.
Original Online Content on POV
The The Apology website—www.pbs.org/pov/theapology — offers a streaming video trailer for the film; an interview with
filmmaker; a list of related websites, articles and books; a downloadable discussion guide; and special features.
History of Military Sexual Slavery
WOMEN’S ACTIVE MUSEUM ON WAR AND PEACE
https://wam-peace.org/en
WOMEN’S HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION INSTITUTE
http://learnwhr.org/comfort-women
This museum in Tokyo holds records and documentation
of war crimes.
Details on the demands for an apology
KOREAN COUNCIL ON WOMEN DRAFTED FOR
Wartime Sexual Violence
MILITARY SEXUAL SLAVERY BY JAPAN
peoplepower21.org/English/37829
An archived English version of the website of the original
advocacy organization
SEXUAL VIOLENCE AND ARMED CONFLICT:
UNITED NATIONS RESPONSE
un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/cover.pdf
A useful historical overview. Also see:
DIGITAL MUSEUM: THE COMFORT WOMEN ISSUE
un.org/en/preventgenocide/rwanda/about/bgsexualvi-
awf.or.jp/e1/index.html
olence.shtml
Document-based accounts of comfort station statistics
and historical background, along with reports about the
Asian Women’s Fund
LOLAS’ HOUSE:
SURVIVORS OF WARTIME RAPE CAMPS
huffingtonpost.com/entry/comfort-women-philippinesm-evelina-galang_us_57232d48e4b0f309baf08490
2016 Huffington Post story about M. Evelina Galang’s work
collecting the stories of the Philippines’ “grandmas” (lolas)
includes reports of official Japanese responses
FIGHT FOR JUSTICE
http://fightforjustice.info/?lang=en
This academic resource is maintained by the Center for
Research and Documentation on Japan's War
Responsibility, led by historian Hirofumi Hayashi.
WARTIME SEXUAL VIOLENCE
washingtonpost.com/news/monkeycage/wp/2014/09/24/wartime-sexual-violence-is-not-ju
st-a-weapon-of-war/?utm_term=.f0f124c93236
An overview of how wartime sexual violence is reported
and the impact of the portrayals
“COMFORT WOMEN” JUSTICE COALITION, SAN
FRANCISCO
http://remembercomfortwomen.org
A grassroots group part of the global “comfort women”
justice movement.
JAPAN-U.S. FEMINIST NETWORK FOR
DECOLONIZATION (FEND)
http://fendnow.org
A network of activists and scholars working to undo
colonialism in the United States and Japan.
DISCUSSION GUIDE
The Apology
|21
�HOW TO BUY THE FILM
To order The Apology for educational use,
go to http://icarusfilms.com/if-ap.
Produced by American Documentary, Inc.,
POV is public television’s premier showcase
for nonfiction films. Since 1988, POV has been
the home for the world’s boldest contemporary filmmakers, celebrating intriguing personal stories that spark conversation and inspire action. Always an innovator, POV discovers fresh new voices
and creates interactive experiences that shine a light on social issues and elevate the art of storytelling. With our documentary
broadcasts, original online programming and dynamic community
engagement campaigns, we are committed to supporting films
that capture the imagination and present diverse perspectives.
POV films have won 37 Emmy® Awards, 21 George Foster
Peabody Awards, 12 Alfred I. duPont-Columbia University Awards,
three Academy Awards®, and the first-ever George Polk Documentary Film Award. The POV series has been honored with a
Special News & Documentary Emmy Award for Excellence in Television Documentary Filmmaking, three IDA Awards for Best Curated Series and the National Association of Latino Independent
Producers (NALIP) Award for Corporate Commitment to Diversity. Learn more at www.pbs.org/pov.
POV Spark (www.pbs.org/pov)
Since 1994, POV Digital has driven new storytelling initiatives
and interactive production for POV. The department has continually experimented with web-based documentaries, producing PBS' first program website and the first Snapchat-native
documentary. It has won major awards for its work, including a
Webby Award and over 19 nominations. Now with a singular
focus on incubating and distributing interactive productions,
POV Spark continues to explore the future of independent nonfiction media through its co-productions, acquisitions and POV
Labs, where media makers and technologists collaborate to reinvent storytelling forms.
Front cover: Grandma Adela.
Photo courtesy of Icarus Films
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The POV Engage team works with educators, community organizations and PBS stations to present more than 800 free
screenings every year. In addition, we distribute free discussion
guides and standards-aligned lesson plans for each of our films.
With our community partners, we inspire dialogue around the
most important social issues of our time.
American Documentary, Inc. (www.amdoc.org)
American Documentary, Inc. (AmDoc) is a multimedia arts organization dedicated to creating, identifying and presenting
contemporary stories that express opinions and perspectives
rarely featured in mainstream media outlets. AmDoc is a catalyst
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�
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/53432/archive/files/5a41d00bda17b480260d1c449e9fb619.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=fXgOYxM3d225JxE%7E7Z-c1FJOdMbAvnwZlf8mG-b1O0NaPN8n9OGGXgeFK3AlvQl5ebK0c2U4yNIB5GPTybFnMq-zbX7rAYHzmco2b5u2hOzRpMjauRXgvj83XKKaUwxoHOmDCe-XL6FVbx7PyjnohcyXCcOBsBe6hrSXmC10M2EUGFMjnabcifhn1VXnHAVnPmxzxtIpX5m%7E2LozxzX%7EHhZKrXaYiNFOdbRadb4cSfYS57tY%7EsHcCj4vLv%7ELyXKCUEbHo3x1nW8JnpI3lDpvajVi3kCE9gkFq8TdN0Dzt6hjd8epU9rG3HzELIawnLI3BsRihzZ3UnR48r-qiMjsMw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
f3c266e3cbbdebea14036a959896db46
PDF Text
Text
LESSON PLAN
Listening and Responding to Women’s Stories from War
OVERVIEW
In this lesson students will learn the history of an often-overlooked part of World War II - the girls
and women forced into military sexual slavery under the occupation of the Japanese army. In
The Apology, three of the surviving women, nicknamed “the Grandmas,” Adela Barroquillo from
the Philippines, Cao Hei Mao from China and Gil Won-Ok from South Korea, relate their
experiences as young girls during the war and reflect on the scars this violence left on their
entire lives.
Sexual violence and rape during war is not unique to World War II, nor are women and girls the
only victims. Governments and the military use rape as a weapon of war to dehumanize and
humiliate populations, exert their power and damage communities for generations.
For over 70 years these women, euphemistically called “comfort women,” have carried the
weight of shame, trauma and fear of rejection. Many did not speak about what they had
experienced. They were sometimes pressured into silence by their communities, who regarded
the women as shameful or even blamed them for what occurred. It has taken decades for their
stories to emerge, but as Director Tiffany Hsiung of The Apology says, “They still need us to
listen and respond.” Learning to listen deeply to and acknowledge the stories of survivors is a
form of justice. This lesson uses first-hand testimonies to understand the consequences of war
through the eyes of women who are sharing their stories as an act of healing, a form of
resistance and an attempt at historical reconciliation.
Note to Educators: The Apology is a documentary film about women’s experience of sexual
violence and rape during war. While the focus on the lesson revolves around what we can learn
from their stories and how it can inspire change, students are asked to be active listeners as the
women share traumatic memories. Setting the historical and emotional context for this lesson
and creating a safe space within your classroom to discuss this topic is critical. It is expected
that this lesson would be integrated only within courses where students have been prepared to
encounter this history and have the maturity with which to share and process the information.
In the Resource section of this lesson you will find several recommended organizations and
materials to use as you prepare to approach this topic with students.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
● Understand the historical context of World War II on mainland China
● Listen to the experience of women survivors of war and reflect upon what it means to
live through war
● Write a reflection on each of the stories
● Create a cinquain poem as a creative response to stories of wartime sexual violence
�The extension activities also offer students the opportunity to:
● Engage with “The Space We Hold” - an online interactive space that allows audiences to
listen to each of the women in The Apology tell their entire story
● Learn about the 2018 Nobel Peace Prize award to Nadia Murad and Dr. Denis Mukwege
for their work fighting sexual violence as a weapon of war
● Learn about international war crimes, including militarized sexual violence and rape
● Connect this history to other current events such as sexual violence occurring in refugee
camps
GRADE LEVELS: 10-12
SUBJECT AREAS
World History, Psychology, English/Language Arts, Asian Studies and History, Women and
Gender Studies, AP World History, AP Human Geography, AP Seminar
MATERIALS
● Film clips from The Apology and equipment on which to show them
ESTIMATED TIME NEEDED
One class period with homework and possible extension activities.
FILM CLIPS
Film clips provided in this lesson are from The Apology. Access the streaming clips for free on
POV's website by visiting www.pbs.org/pov/educators. Borrow the full film from our DVD
Lending Library by joining the POV Community Network.
Clip 1: Meeting Grandma Gil (4:23 min.)
Vimeo: 2:33 - 6:56.
We meet Grandma Gil, who embarks on a two week long trip to Japan to protest the Osaka
mayor’s statement that it was necessary to have “comfort women” during the Japanese
occupation.
Clip 2: Meeting Grandma Cao (3:22 min.)
Vimeo: 9:30 - 13:12
In Grandma Cao’s village in China, we hear from villagers about what they know of her
experience. We also listen to author Zhang Shaun Bing, who has collected and published the
testimonies of wartime sexual violence victims in the book Comfort Women Survey Records.
Clip 3: Meeting Adela (4:15 min)
Vimeo: 15:30 - 19:05.
We enter Grandma Adela’s community in the Philippines and meet the community of fellow
survivors from the war who get together for companionship.
Clip 4: The Power of Story: Part I (2:07 min.)
Vimeo: 25:28 - 27:35 (2:07)
We learn more about the work Grandma Gil does when speaking out on behalf of all wartime
survivors of sexual violence.
Clip 5: The Power of Story: Part II (4:20 min.)
�Vimeo: 53:55 - 57:35 (4:20)
Grandma Gil tells her story in more detail to a group of Chinese women as part of a conference.
Clip 6: “Asking the World to Participate” (2:35 min.)
Vimeo:1:15:05 - 1:17:00
It is the 1,119th protest in front of the Japanese Embassy in Seoul, South Korea, where
Grandma Gil and hundreds of others call for the Japanese government to apologize.
Clip 7: “Give Us Strength” (2:30 min.)
Vimeo:1:18:30 - 1:22:00
1.5 million signatures are delivered to the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for
Human Rights.
ACTIVITY: A Listening Inventory
Explain to students that they will be watching a series of short clips from the documentary film
The Apology. The clips offer a window into the lives of three women forced into military sexual
slavery by the Japanese Imperial Army during World War II.
Step One: Setting the Historical Context
Review the historical context of World War II in the Asian-Pacific region. There are many maps
of this period of time including this one from West Point.1 The purpose of this review is to have
students get a sense of the geographic scale and span of the Japanese occupation.
We highly recommend reading this brief overview of Japan’s quest for power from 1931-1945.
See “Japan’s Quest for Power” in Asia for Educators from Columbia University.2
Step Two: Introduce the Exercise
Set the format: Have students get a clean sheet of paper and pencil and ask students to remain
quiet throughout the activity in order to help foster a space for reflection.
Explain the activity: Share with students that they will now be watching a series of short clips
from the documentary film The Apology. Explain that after watching each clip a question will be
posed to prompt reflection on a particular detail from the segment. Explain that after watching
the sequence of clips, students will use their answers to construct a cinquain poem to help them
reflect upon these women’s stories and this episode of World War II history.
Step Three: Watch and Write
Watch Clip 1, then, read aloud this statement from Grandma Gil:
“I understand that my visit is not appreciated. It is very difficult for someone like me to
come to Japan. I don't know what you think about people like us who have been abused
like us. We were born human, but haven't been able to live like normal humans. I will
keep talking until the day I die. I am sincerely asking the Japanese government if they
can speak the truth. Once we resolve the 'comfort women' issue, this war can finally
end.”
1
https://www.westpoint.edu/history/SiteAssets/SitePages/World%20War%20II%20Pacific/WorldWarTwoA
siaOverview.gif
2
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/japan_1900_power.htm#war
�Writing Prompt: Thinking of the public statement Grandma Gil made at the Japanese Embassy
in Seoul, and what you watched about Grandma Gil’s life. Write two words that you feel
describe her personality.
Watch Clip 2, then have students respond to this writing prompt:
At the time of filming Grandma Cao lived alone in China at the age of 92.3 After
“meeting” Grandma Cao through this film clip, write four words that describe her
personality and/or her home.
Watch Clip 3, then have students respond to this writing prompt:
In this clip we “meet” Grandma Adela and her fellow Filipina World War II survivors at
their monthly meeting. Choose six individual words or create a short phrase that
describes Grandma Adela and her community of women.
Watch Clips 4 and 5. After watching the clips, ask students to respond to this writing prompt:
Write down eight words that describe the emotions you felt or observed in these two film
segments of Grandma Gil.
Watch Clips 6 and 7. Have students note one word for each clip that describes the actions of
the Grandmas and their supporters.
Step Four: Writing a Cinquain Poem - Processing Difficult Content
A cinquain poem is a 5-line poem that does not rhyme and can be written about anything. The
syllable pattern of a cinquain is 2, 4, 6, 8, 2; with this pattern, a unique visual shape emerges.
Instructions for students: Write down the words you used after viewing each of the film clips
from The Apology. You may elect to assemble them as they were written or you may elect to
move the words around to create another form.
Continuing to be silent, have students spend ten minutes creating their cinquain poem from their
written responses to The Apology. If time allows, have students share their poem in pairs or
invite volunteers to share with the entire class.
Collect the poems from students. You may begin the next class in one of these ways:
1. Posting the cinquain poems around the class and have students silently walk around
and read the poems.
2. Assemble students in small groups and have students share their poems.
3. Passing out the poems randomly in class. Have each student write a response to the
author of the poem on the back of the paper. Ask them to sign their name and return the
poem to the author.
EXTENSIONS/ADAPTATIONS
The Space We Hold4
An interactive web project inviting students to interact more deeply with the stories of Grandma
3
4
Since the release of The Apology, Grandma Cao has died.
http://spacewehold.nfb.ca/
�Gil, Grandma Cao, and Grandma Adela. From the website, “In an era where rape continues to
be used as a weapon of war and where sexual shaming and online harassment is
commonplace, The Space We Hold asks us to imagine new ways of listening and responding to
sexual violence.”
The 2018 Nobel Peace Prize
In 2018, Nadia Murad and Dr. Denis Mukwege were awarded The Nobel Peace Prize for their
efforts to end the use of sexual violence as a weapon of war and armed conflict. In the press
release announcing the award, the Nobel Committee stated:
This year marks a decade since the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 18205
(2008), which determined that the use of sexual violence as a weapon of war and armed
conflict constitutes both a war crime and a threat to international peace and security.
This is also set out in the Rome Statute of 1998, which governs the work of the
International Criminal Court. The Statute establishes that sexual violence in war and
armed conflict is a grave violation of international law. A more peaceful world can only
be achieved if women and their fundamental rights and security are recognized and
protected in war.6
Have students research the work of Dr. Mukwege and Nadia Murad on The Nobel Peace Prize
website.7 Go here to see lessons on the 2018 Nobel Peace Prize.8 As a homework assignment,
have students research and write a Nobel Peace Prize nomination for a leader of their choice
who has advanced the mission of ending violence against women.
Learn about International Law and Conventions on Sexual Violence during War
Read “UN Background Information on Rape as a Tool of War.”9 Read the Historical Timeline
from United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women.10
Memorials
In The Apology we see the unveiling the Peace Statue to commemorate the 1,000th
Wednesday demonstration of the Korean Council for the Women Drafted for Military Sexual
Slavery by Japan.11 This statue is one of many around the world to commemorate this wartime
atrocity and the ongoing struggle for a full acknowledgement and reparations. To learn more
about the history of the Peace Memorial we see in The Apology see “Japan Recalls South
Korean Ambassador in Protest of ‘Comfort Women’ Memorial.”12 Students may research the
World War II memorials in their area and draft a proposal for incorporating the history of
5
https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/CAC%20S%20RES%201820.pdf
6
The Nobel Peace Prize for 2018. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Media AB 2018. Mon. 15 Oct 2018.
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2018/press-release. As a gynecologist Dr. Mukwege remains
one of the world’s leading experts on repairing the injuries of rape and Nadia Murad, a member of the
Yazidi minority in northern Iraq, was herself a victim of rape at the hands of the Islamic State Army and
now speaks out to raise awareness and on behalf of other victims.
7
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/
8
https://www.nobelprize.org/peace-2018-nobel-prize-lessons/
9
http://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/rwanda/about/bgsexualviolence.shtml
10
http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/1472-historical-timeline.html
11
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Korean_Council_for_the_Women_Drafted_for_Military_Sexual_Slaver
y_by_Japan
12
https://news.artnet.com/art-world/comfort-women-statue-south-korea-japan-814244
�“comfort women”—or other underrepresented victims of war. Have students design an
informational poster to place on/near a local memorial, to make the commemorative work more
inclusive.
Calls to Action
The focus of the women’s activism in The Apology is personal and political. We see the
Grandmas and hundreds of supporters organizing to pressure the current Japanese
government to accept responsibility and be held accountable for their past crimes and to offer
reparations. To learn more about this campaign see the 100 Million Signature Campaign.
Research Extensions
Rape in Current Refugee Camps
“Women and children ‘endure rape beatings and abuse’ inside Dunkirk’s refugee camp,” The
Guardian, February 11, 2017.13
Rohingya Refugees
“Violent rape just one of many disasters for Rohingya refugees,” NBC News, December 19,
2017.14
United Nations High Commission for Refugees
“UNHCR study uncovers shocking sexual violence against Syrian refugee boys, men,”
December, 6, 2017.15
“Why the ‘Comfort Women’ Issue Still Matters, 70 Years Later,” The Diplomat, June 18, 2018.16
The Film
The Apology
https://www.nfb.ca/film/apology/ — The National Film Board of Canada’s website about the film
includes purchase information and streaming clips.
www.pbs.org/pov/theapology — Offers a streaming video trailer for the film; an interview with
the filmmaker; a list of related websites, articles and books; a downloadable discussion guide;
and special features.
POV: Media Literacy Questions for Analyzing POV Films
http://www.pbs.org/pov/educators/media-literacy.php —This list of questions provides a useful
starting point for leading rich discussions that challenge students to think critically about
documentaries.
STANDARDS
Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts & Literacy in History/Social
Studies, Science and Technical Subjects
(http://www.corestandards.org/assets/CCSSI_ELA%20Standards.pdf)
13
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/feb/12/dunkirk-child-refugees-risk-sexual-violence
https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/violent-rape-just-one-many-disasters-rohingya-refugeesn830351
15
http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/press/2017/12/5a27a6594/unhcr-study-uncovers-shocking-sexualviolence-against-syrian-refugee-boys.html
16
https://thediplomat.com/2018/06/why-the-comfort-women-issue-still-matters-70-years-later/
14
�Anchor Standards
Reading Literature and/or Information: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas.
RL/RI.X.7. Integrate and evaluate content presented in diverse media and formats, including
visually and quantitatively, as well as in words.
RL/RI.X.9. Analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics in order to build
knowledge or to compare the approaches the authors take.
Speaking and Listening: Comprehension and Collaboration
SL.X.1 Prepare for and participate effectively in a range of conversations and collaborations
with diverse partners, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and
persuasively.
SL.X.2. Integrate and evaluate information presented in diverse media and formats, including
visually, quantitatively, and orally
SL.X.3 Evaluate a speaker’s point of view, reasoning, and use of evidence and rhetoric.
Range of Writing:
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.W.10
Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and
shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks, purposes, and
audiences.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Blueshift is a team of education specialists with background in social impact work. The team
recognizes and builds on the power of documentary film in reaching broad audiences to spark
energy for deep and lasting social change. The team works with filmmakers, photographers and
writers to develop innovative educational strategies, experiences, tools and resources that bring
stories off the screen and into viewers' lives.
�
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Resources for Educators: The Apology
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The Apology, a documentary by Tiffany Hsiung, follows the journeys of three former “comfort women” who were among the 200,000 girls and young women kidnapped and forced into military sexual slavery by the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. After decades of living in silence and shame about their past, the three “grandmothers”– Grandma Gil in South Korea, Grandma Cao in China, and Grandma Adela in the Philippines - share their lived experiences to ensure that this atrocity is not forgotten. <br /><br />Created by <a href="https://www.pbs.org/pov/watch/theapology/">POV</a>, this collection of resources includes a discussion guide, lesson plan, and a reading list. <br /><br /><a href="https://www.nfb.ca/film/apology/">View the film here.</a>
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POV
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Japanese Military Sexual Slavery, War Atrocities, Human Rights, Justice
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http://archive.pov.org/theapology/
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<a href="https://earth.google.com/earth/d/1sWfp7h80oOaTz8KmiY94C5Wi3xYfXHYv?usp=sharing">Statue of Peace: Memory and Reconciliation</a>
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The goal of <a href="https://earth.google.com/earth/d/1sWfp7h80oOaTz8KmiY94C5Wi3xYfXHYv?usp=sharing">this project</a> is to highlight the strength and resilience of the survivors of the Japanese Military Sexual Slavery system. With the first statue of peace raised in Seoul, Korea, many more since then have been built and raised to honor the women who suffered, and to make sure that similar atrocities associated with war do not happen again. Through education about the various statues of peace raised to honor the memory of these women, it is the hope that the wider public will learn more about the stories behind these women, which are missing from school curricula around the world. The overarching goal of the peace statues, like many projects created to spread awareness of the consequences of war, is to protect the culture of peace. In doing so, societies can be free from sexual violence and other crimes against human rights. <br /><br />This project was created by the following ALPHA Education interns from the Global Scholars Program conducted in partnership with University of Michigan: Benitez Laura, Chau Madelyn, and Nair Rashmi (2021-22).
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ALPHA Education
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War atrocities, Japanese Military Sexual Slavery system, Statue of Peace
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Text
STUDY GUIDE FOR TEACHERS
IRIS CHANG - THE RAPE OF NANKING
A FEATURE-LENGTH DOCUMENTARY FILM
Version 1.8
June 20, 2009
Produced by:
ALPHA Education
This document will be updated as we receive more contributions and feedback from educators.
You may email your comments and suggested teaching ideas to info@alphaeducation.org
�Online resource published by: ALPHA Education at www.alphaeducation.org
© 2009 ALPHA Education
�ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Film Production
R2R Reel to Reel Productions in association with Dadi Entertainment & Toronto ALPHA
Directors: Bill Spahic & Anne Pick
Producer: Anne Pick
Executive Producers: Anne Pick, John Sham & Dr. Joseph Y.K. Wong
Consultants: Dr. Joseph Y.K. Wong & Flora Chong
Editors
Alyssa Fred Wong, H.BSc., Program Coordinator, Toronto ALPHA (Association for Learning &
Preserving the History of WWII in Asia)
Flora Chong, Vice-Chair, Toronto ALPHA (Association for Learning & Preserving the History
of WWII in Asia)
Contributing Authors
Alyssa Fred Wong, Program Coordinator, Toronto ALPHA (Association for Learning &
Preserving the History of WWII in Asia)
Amy Chan, Teacher, Forest Hill Collegiate Institute, Toronto District School Board, Ontario;
2008 Peace & Reconciliation Study Tour participant
Bayan Khatib, BA, University of Toronto Mississauga
Carole Whelan, History Teacher, North Toronto Collegiate, Toronto District School Board; 2008
Peace & Reconciliation Study Tour participant
Flora Chong, Vice-Chair, Toronto ALPHA (Association for Learning & Preserving the History
of WWII in Asia)
George L. Hall, BED., BA.HONS., Retired Teacher, Toronto; 2006 Peace & Reconciliation
Study Tour participant
i|Iris Chang - the Rape of Nanking DVD Study Guide
�Margaret Wells, Instructor, Initial Teacher Training Program, Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education at the University of Toronto; 2008 Peace & Reconciliation Study Tour
participant
Dr. Robert Lato, Instructor, Initial Teacher Training Program, Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education at the University of Toronto; 2005 Peace & Reconciliation Study Tour
participant
Review Team
Cameron Fahlman, Teacher of English Language Arts, Old Scona Academic High School,
Edmonton, Alberta
Prof. Gary Evans, Department of Communication, University of Ottawa
Joanne Madden, Library Researcher, Toronto Star
John Madden, ESL Instructor, Humber College, Toronto
Dr. Joseph Y.K. Wong, Chair, Toronto ALPHA (Association for Learning & Preserving the
History of WWII in Asia)
Patricia Magliocco, Teacher, Greater St. Albert Catholic Schools, Alberta
Stephanie Cheung, Teacher, Harry Bowes Public School, York Region District School Board
ii | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................ i
Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 1
International Film Festival Awards and Accreditations .............................................................................. 1
Recommendations on How To Use This Guide .......................................................................................... 2
Suggested Themes ........................................................................................................................................ 3
War Crimes / Human Rights / Human Rights Abuses .......................................................................... 3
Historiography / Historical Revisionism / Denial ................................................................................. 6
Nationalism / Militarism / Imperialism .............................................................................................. 10
Genocide / Prejudice / Discrimination ............................................................................................... 12
Gender Issues .................................................................................................................................... 15
Active Citizenship............................................................................................................................... 17
Film & Video ...................................................................................................................................... 20
English / Language Arts / Writing ....................................................................................................... 22
Iris Chang’s Experiences / Responding to Emotion ........................................................................... 24
Making Personal Connections / Family History / Current Events ...................................................... 26
Reflection Questions .................................................................................................................................. 28
Appendix I – Timeline of WWII in Asia ..................................................................................................... 30
Appendix II – Maps & Figures .................................................................................................................... 33
A) Extent of Japanese Control ........................................................................................................... 33
B) Asia ................................................................................................................................................ 33
C) Nanking and International Safety Zone ......................................................................................... 34
Appendix III – Members of the International Safety Zone Committee .................................................. 35
Appendix IV – When Did World War II Start? .......................................................................................... 37
Appendix V – A Song For Iris Lyrics .......................................................................................................... 39
Appendix VI – Sample Student Response ................................................................................................. 40
Appendix VII – DVD Chapter Divisions ...................................................................................................... 42
Appendix VIII – Suggested References/Resources .................................................................................... 43
�INTRODUCTION
Iris Chang was a respected humanitarian, outstanding journalist and advocate for
justice. This docudrama portrays Iris Chang’s courage and unfaltering conviction to speak for
those who cannot speak for themselves, while providing an accurate historical account of the
1937 Nanking Massacre. The “Rape of Nanking,” as the massacre was called, was front-page
news when it happened, but was soon forgotten in the west, amid the subsequent events of
WWII.
The story starts in 1994 when Iris Chang saw an exhibit of photographs of the atrocities
at a conference, and undertook to rescue this event from obscurity. Over the next three years,
she researched and wrote a book that became a highly praised best-seller. The book also
ignited a firestorm of controversy in Japan, where many prominent people continue, to this day,
to deny that the Japanese Imperial Army committed war crimes during WWII.
The film obtained full co-operation from Iris Chang’s parents who provided valuable
information about their beloved daughter. A research team reviewed many archives on the
Nanking Massacre and Iris Chang, and uncovered more than 200 boxes of Iris Chang’s
research work and archives at the Hoover Institute. The research team was also able to obtain
the original video tapes taken by Iris of survivors while she was in Nanking, and the original
films taken by Missionary, John McGee, during the Massacre. The production team found and
interviewed numerous survivors in Nanking, as well as former Japanese soldiers, right-wing
revisionists, and peace activists in Japan.
The television premiere of Iris Chang – the Rape of Nanking aired on Canada’s History
Channel on December 13, 2007 – the 70th anniversary of the Nanking Massacre.
INTERNATIONAL FILM FESTIVAL AWARDS AND ACCREDITATIONS
New York Film Festival 2008 – Winner, World Bronze Medal
65th Columbus International Film & Video Festival – Chris Award
Guangzhou International Documentary Film Festival – Special Jury Prize
Directors Guild of Canada (DGC) - 2008 DGC Best Documentary nomination
Atlanta Film Festival – Rated 3.5/4 and accepted screening in the festival
Newport Beach Film Festival 2008
Reel Women’s International Film Festival 2009
1|Iris Chang - the Rape of Nanking DVD Study Guide
�RECOMMENDATIONS ON HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE
This study guide is theme-based instead of curriculum-based. It is intended for use
internationally within any secondary school system.
The guide consists of a list of recommendations on how to use this film in a classroom setting, a
suggested list of teachable themes that the film relates to, and Response Questions.
Appendixes of World War II Timelines, Maps, Names, Song Lyrics and References are also
included.
ADVISORY: it is strongly recommended that you view this
film before showing it to your students
It is suggested that you warn students that it is okay for them to have an emotional response to
the film and to look away, or put their head down, if necessary.
We recommend pointing out the key themes to your students before you show them the film.
For example, you may want to inform your students to “Pay attention to ....” Some samples of
Suggested Themes you may wish to cover with your students are provided under the
Suggested Themes section. Since it may not be possible for a class to view the entire film, each
Suggested Theme includes a list of related DVD chapters that may be shown individually.
However, it is recommended that you use the film in its entirety.
Students may find it useful to have the Reflection Questions given to them before viewing the
film, to help guide their focus during the viewing. Some sample Reflection Questions are
provided in the Reflection Questions section. These questions can then be discussed after
viewing the film during a class discussion or students can submit individual responses.
It is useful to place the film into the context of WWII in Asia and global war. You may want to
ask your class, “When did WWII start? 1895? 1933? 1937? 1939? 1941?” [See Appendix IV “When Did WWII Start?”]
A list of suggested references and resources is provided in Appendix VIII should you require
further information.
2|Iris Chang - the Rape of Nanking DVD Study Guide
�SUGGESTED THEMES
The following are some suggested themes that relate to the Docu-Drama Iris Chang - the Rape
of Nanking. There may be other themes that you wish to cover with your class.
War Crimes / Human Rights / Human Rights Abuses
Objective: Students should understand
■ Loss and suffering associated with war
■ Types of Japanese War Atrocities and human rights abuses during
WWII in Asia
o Including rape as a tool of war
■ Similarities between the Nanking Massacre and other acts of
violence, genocide and human rights abuses
■ Military trials of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East
(IMTFE), the legal precedents set in WWII war crimes trials and the
limitations of the trials
■ The international redress movement
Japanese Atrocities in Asia
Forced labour
Chemical and Biological Warfare
Military Sexual Slavery (“Comfort Women” and “Comfort Stations”)
Massacres (Nanking)
Similarities between the Nanking Massacre and other atrocities
Dehumanization of victims
o Process of dehumanization described by Iris Chang and former Japanese
Imperial Army soldiers
Devaluation of human life
o Imperial Army training taught that the only thing of value was the Emperor of
Japan and that the greatest honour a soldier could have was to die for Japan
o Chinese were considered to be “less than ants”
Rewards for perpetrator behaviour
o Prestige for soldiers when competitions of decapitating prisoners and civilians
were covered by news papers
Following orders from superior commanders, humiliation for failure to comply
Actions sanctioned and sponsored by the State, the ruling powers of Imperial Japan
Sexual Slavery and Rape as a tool of war
Organized, purposeful, systematic – sanctioned by the Imperial Japanese Army even
before the outbreak of war
o System expanded during the war, Comfort Stations were run by the Japanese
Imperial Army across Asia in Japanese occupied territories
3|Iris Chang - the Rape of Nanking DVD Study Guide
�
Japanese Military Sexual Slaves referred to as “Comfort Women”
o Euphemistic term for sex slaves used by the Imperial Army of Japan
o As many as 200,000 women were kidnapped, tricked or sold into sexual slavery
■ Nearly 150,000 of these women were from Korea
o Women were raped, tortured and mutilated
Comfort Stations
o Locations where Comfort Women were imprisoned, tortured and raped by
soldiers
The government of Japan still officially denies the implementation of the Japanese
Military Sexual Slavery
1998 United Nations Report to the United Nations Human Rights Commission details the
Japanese Military Sexual Slavery system (Comfort Women system) as a form of slavery
International Criminal Court – International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE)
Also known as Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal or Tokyo Trials
Established to prosecute leaders of Imperial Japan for war crimes
o Class A – crimes against peace
o Class B – war crimes
o Class C – crimes against humanity
Convened on May 3, 1946 and adjourned on Nov 12, 1948
Emperor Hirohito was not prosecuted, nor were any other members of the Royal Family
28 military and political leaders charged with Class A war crimes
IMTFE documented war atrocities including: Massacres (the Rape of Nanking),
Japanese Military Sexual Slavery (“Comfort Women” and “Comfort Stations”), forced
slave labour and Biological and Chemical warfare.
Despite documentation and evidence, IMTFE did not prosecute the crimes of Military
Sexual Slavery or Biological and Chemical warfare.
IMTFE criticized for being ex post facto, for being “victors’ justice” and for exonerating
the Imperial Family.
Similar trials in Europe include the Nuremburg Trials and Subsequent Nuremburg
Proceedings
o 24 Class A War Criminals tried in Nuremburg and 185 War Criminals tried in 12
Subsequent Nuremburg Proceedings, for Crimes Against Humanity and War
Crimes
International Redress Movement for “Comfort Women”
Many international grass-roots movements have been organized to promote the issue of
the International Redress Movement
In March of 2007 the Japanese Prime Minister openly and publicly denied that Japan
had forced women into sexual slavery during WWII, provoking a reaction from the
international community; as a result
Parliamentary Motions, acknowledging the extent of the Japanese Comfort Woman
Sexual Slavery system, and demanding an official apology from Japan were passed in
o The U.S.A. in July 2007
o The Netherlands in November 2007
o Canada in November 2007
o The European Union (E.U.) in December 2007
o The Philippine in March 2008
o South Korea in October 2008
o Taiwan in November 2008
4|Iris Chang - the Rape of Nanking DVD Study Guide
�Related DVD Chapters – War Crimes / Human Rights and Human Rights Abuses
Chapter
Start Time
Title
1
01:00:01
“Opening Credits/Suicide”
2
01:02:40
“Cupertino & History Backgrounder”
3
01:06:02
“Iris Parents’ Story”
11
01:30:20
“Japanese Invasion of Nanking”
12
01:33:00
“Ono Kenji/Burning of Soldiers’ Bodies”
13
01:38:19
“Attack on Citizens/Women”
14
01:41:09
“Xia Shu Quin Survivor Story”
15
01:43:08
“Comfort Women/Lei Gui Ying”
17
01:46:51
“Jiang Genfu Survivor Story”
18
01:49:08
“Living Conditions of Survivors”
19
01:52:31
“Back Writing /Ni Cui Ping, Wu Zheng Xi, Qin Je”
20
02:03:15
“Japanese Soldiers/Kaneko Ysuji”
23
02:15:01
“Japanese Reaction/Forgotten Holocaust”
24
02:20:50
“Chang Zhi Qiang Survivor”
26
02:28:32
“Bataan Research”
Potential Subject Connections
- History
- Law
- Genocide
- World Issues
- Geography
- Philosophy
- Ethics/Morality
5|Iris Chang - the Rape of Nanking DVD Study Guide
�Historiography / Historical Revisionism / Denial
Objective: Students should understand
■ Historiography and the role of the Historian
■ Historical revisionism and denial
■ Denial regarding the Nanking Massacre
■ Eurocentric trends in History and WWII as a global war
■ The importance of historical records, sources, evidence and their uses
Historiography
The study of how knowledge about historical events is obtained and transmitted,
sometimes called “the history of history”
Involves examining the writing of history and the use of historical methods and sources
Examines elements such as authorship, bias, style, interpretation, source and evidence
use, as well as the intended audience
Historiography can also refer to a body of historical work about a specific topic
o ex: the Historiography of China
The role of the Historian
To accurately portray an event, determine historical facts and establish historical truth
Historians must establish
o From whose point of view is the event portrayed?
o What is considered a historical fact?
o What is historical truth?
Can be influenced by the bias of the historian’s culture and times
o ex: Early Colonial History was written from a racist point of view, which is now
discredited, but was accepted as fact during the time it was written
o All historians are products of their cultures and times, just as all historians are
influenced by their values and world views
Historical Interpretations
Different interpretations can arise, depending on sources, interpretations and intended
audiences
Historical Revisionism vs. Denial
Historical Revisionism is the re-interpretation of initial orthodox views about evidence
and meaning surrounding a historical event
o Assumption is that the currently accepted version of a historical event needs
significant changes in interpretation
Legitimate historical revisionism involves refining existing knowledge about an historical
event
o Involves examining new evidence and re-examining existing evidence
o Does not deny that a historical event happened
Legitimate historical revisionism is peer-reviewed and draws on a wide variety of
appropriate sources
6|Iris Chang - the Rape of Nanking DVD Study Guide
�
Denial rejects the entire foundation of the historical evidence and denies that the
historical event took place – involves a distortion of the historical records
o Illegitimate methodology and research tactics are used; only select sources are
considered and sources that refute the denial are ignored
Denial is often deliberately mislabelled as historical revisionism to make it seem
academically legitimate
Often there is a lack of distinction between revisionists and deniers; with both being
referred to as “revisionists”
Denial of historical events often provokes efforts of legitimate scholarship to unearth the truth of
an historical event
All genocides of the 20th Century have been denied
All genocides of the 20th Century have qualified academic scholars working on
establishing the truth and countering the denial
Denial of the Nanking Massacre
Denial is often described as “Historical Revisionism” and deniers are often referred to as
“Historical Revisionists”
o Attempt to legitimate denial with reference to academia
o Historians engaged in legitimate historical revisionism are simply called
historians
Motivations include
o Political – the prestige of a nation
o Psychological – avoidance of guilt or culpability
o Legal – avoidance of prosecution
o Ideological – denial based on a belief
Japanese Government officially denies the Nanking Massacre and the existence of
Japanese Military Sexual Slavery during WWII
o Many other countries officially deny historical events, often for nationalist or
political reasons
o ex: Turkey officially denies the Armenian Genocide, Iran officially denies the
Holocaust
Forms of denial of the Nanking Massacre
o Complete denial
■ Claiming that civilian deaths are a part of war
o Disputes over numbers killed
■ Arguing that the number of people killed does not amount to a massacre
o Distortion and Re-Writing of history
■ Instead of writing “Japan invaded China” writing “Japan entered China”
■ Justifying Japan’s military imperialism as protecting Asia from racist and
imperialist Western practice
■ Calling the Nanking Massacre the Nanking Incident
Eurocentric trends in history and WWII as a global war
The events of WWII in Europe are well-known and commonly taught in history classes –
why are the events of WWII in Asia less well know and taught less frequently?
o The Rape of Nanking was front page news in 1937, Western journalists
published reports about the massacre
o However, until Iris Chang published the Rape of Nanking in 1997 few people
cared to remember WWII atrocities in Asia
7|Iris Chang - the Rape of Nanking DVD Study Guide
�
Importance of examining WWII as a global conflict
o WWII start date is commonly assigned to 1939 when Germany invaded Poland,
but fighting in Asia started as early as 1931
o See Appendix IV - When Did WWII Start?
Much of Asia and Africa was divided into colonies or spheres of influence by Western
Powers. When the ruling power went to war the colonies had to assist
Global Alliances
o Axis Alliance: Germany, Italy and Japan
o Allies: The British Empire and Commonwealth countries, France and French
colonies, Canada, Poland, Australia, etc.
■ Eventually included: Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, Norway,
Luxemburg, the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R., among others
The U.S.A. was officially neutral in WWII, until Japan raided Pearl Harbour
o Hitler declared war on the U.S.A. and the U.S.A. officially entered the war in
Europe on Dec. 11, 1941
o The allies decided on the “Europe First” strategy – to win the war in Europe
before focusing on war efforts in Asia
o It was the Japanese raid on Pearl Harbour that ultimately brought the U.S.A. into
the war in Europe
Importance of historical records, sources, evidence and their uses
What constitutes historical sources? What makes a source reliable?
o Why is it important to have multiple and varied sources?
How can one account for differences in historical records?
o Lack of evidence: often documents are deliberately destroyed, lost in the
destruction of war or never existed
o Different interpretations of the same sources: every historian can interpret things
differently based on his/her intent, audience and personal influences or biases
Iris Chang used many sources in her research and examined all perspectives of the
massacre
o Interviews with Chinese survivors
o Interviews with Japanese soldiers
o Personal diaries
■ John Rabe’s diary, Minnie Vautrin’s diary, the diary of a Japanese soldier
o Video footage
o Photographs
o Official government and military records
Iris Chang’s the Rape of Nanking narrates the events of the Nanking Massacre from
three different points of view
o The Japanese interpretation
o The Chinese interpretation
o The interpretation of foreigners in Nanking
8|Iris Chang - the Rape of Nanking DVD Study Guide
�Related DVD Chapters – Historiography / Historical Revisionism / Denial
Chapter
Start Time
Title
2
01:02:40
“Cupertino & History Backgrounder”
3
01:06:02
“Iris Parents’ Story”
6
01:14:20
“Book deal/Research”
7
01:16:48
“Westerners in Nanking”
8
01:18:22
“Minnie Vautrin Story”
9
01:22:57
“Travel to China”
10
01:25:23
“Chinese Scholars”
11
01:30:20
“Japanese Invasion of Nanking”
12
01:33:00
“Ono Kenji/Burning of Soldiers’ Bodies”
13
01:38:19
“Attack on Citizens/Women”
14
01:41:09
“Xia Shu Quin Survivor Story”
15
01:43:08
“Comfort Women/Lei Gui Ying”
17
01:46:51
“Jiang Genfu Survivor Story”
20
02:03:15
“Japanese Soldiers/Kaneko Ysuji”
21
02:07:28
“John Rabe Story”
22
02:11:30
“Book Publication/Canada Alpha”
23
02:15:01
“Japanese Reaction/Forgotten Holocaust”
24
02:20:50
“Chang Zhi Qiang Survivor”
26
02:28:32
“Bataan Research”
Potential Subject Connections
- History
- Genocide
- Politics
- Law
- Philosophy
- Ethics/Morality
9|Iris Chang - the Rape of Nanking DVD Study Guide
�Nationalism / Militarism / Imperialism
Objective: Students should understand
■ Nationalism, Militarism and Imperialism
■ How these ideological factors influenced the outbreak of wars
■ Reasons for growing Japanese Militarism
■ The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
Nationalism: Loyalty and devotion to a nation; a sense of exalting one nation above all others;
national consciousness; the primacy of a national culture or interests above all other nations or
supranational groups
Militarism: the predominance of military ideals, values or the military class; or a policy of
aggressive military preparedness
Imperialism: the direct or indirect domination of an area/country/region by another industrialized
country – the creation of colonies
Militaristic and Nationalist Ideologies during WWI and WWII functioned as justifications for:
Starting military conflicts
Sacrificing soldiers in battles
Invading other nations
Obtaining colonies and occupying territories
Imperialistic Expansion
Model established by Western powers while dividing Africa and China into colonies
Spheres of Influence
Nationalist ideology – for the glory of the nation state
Militarism as a tool for expansion
Reasons for the growth of Militarism in Japan
Aspirations for Western-style Imperialism
o International prestige and power associated with foreign territorial possessions
Security Concerns
o Defence of the country against the U.S.S.R. and other Western powers; fear of
invasion
o Rivalries between Western powers was threatening to bring China (then
occupied and divided into Spheres of Influence) to collapse – implications for
Japanese National Security if China collapsed
o Korea considered an important part of protection of Japan; geographic location
and proximity to China and the U.S.S.R.
Belief in Japan’s role as an Asian Leader
o Belief in “manifest destiny,” expansionism, and survival of cultures through Social
Darwinian methods
o 1905: Japan first Asian country to defeat Western power (Russia)
■ Russo-Japanese War
■ Increased prestige for Japan in the international arena
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Provocation by Western Powers
o Coercive acts; insults and provocations by Western Imperialist Countries such
as: unequal treaties, extraterritorial rights, Washington Conference Naval Treaty
of 1921-22 and 1924 Japanese Exclusion Act passed in the U.S.A.
Economic Interests
o Great Depression of 1930
o Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
The term used for the areas and territories occupied by Japan or under Japanese control
Idea of Japanese cultural superiority over other Asian races
Economic reasons
o raw materials from East Asian countries, oil from Dutch East Indies, rubber from
Indochina – for manufacturing industry
o export markets for goods and surplus population
Political aspirations – considered colonies to be a basic prerequisite to achieving
international prestige and becoming a respected first-rate nation
Used language such as “Asia for Asians” or “liberating Asian countries from Western
Imperialist powers”
o but local governments were puppet regimes and programmes of “Japanization”
were implemented to undermine local customs and beliefs in occupied territories
Related DVD Chapters – Nationalism / Militarism / Imperialism
Chapter
Start Time
Title
2
01:02:40
“Cupertino & History Backgrounder”
3
01:06:02
“Iris Parents’ Story”
11
01:30:20
“Japanese Invasion of Nanking”
20
02:03:15
“Japanese Soldiers/Kaneko Ysuji”
23
02:15:01
“Japanese Reaction/Forgotten Holocaust”
24
02:20:50
“Chang Zhi Qiang Survivor”
Potential Subject Connections
- History
- Politics
- Genocide
- Sociology
- Philosophy
- Ethics/Morality
11 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�Genocide / Prejudice / Discrimination
Objective: Students should understand
■ Definition of genocide, prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination
■ Categories of: perpetrators, victims, bystanders, heroes, rescuers
o The overlap between the categories
■ Importance and capabilities of ordinary people – “the Power of One”
■ The creation of perpetrators through the use of dehumanization,
abuse, devaluation, rewards and racist ideology
■ Euphemistic language used in genocide
Genocide, as defined by the United Nations (UN) in the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, is any of the following acts committed with intent to
destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:
a) Killing members of the group
b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group
c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical
destruction in whole or in part
d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group
e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group
Prejudice: a type of prejudgement; a preconceived opinion or feeling, often formed without
reference to knowledge or reason.
Racism is a form of prejudice, as is anti-semitism
Prejudice often leads to stereotypes
Stereotype: fixed impressions or preconceived ideas, usually very simplified, about particular
groups of people; often based on appearance
Ex: “Asian students are good at math” or “boys are better athletes than girls” are
common stereotypes
Stereotypes often lead to discrimination
Discrimination: is dealing with, treating or considering a person based on their
group/class/category rather than on their individual merit
Ex: racial discrimination, religious discrimination, sexual discrimination, economic
discrimination, etc
Categories of people involved in wars and atrocities:
Perpetrators – those who commit the atrocities or crimes
Victims – those who are the targets for persecution
Bystanders – those who are aware of what is happening but do not take any substantial
actions
Heroes – those who actively work to save lives and help victims
Rescuers – like heroes, those who actively try to save victims
These categories often overlap
Someone who engages in the actions of a perpetrator may save some lives
Someone who is a victim may engage in actions that cause harm to other victims
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Perpetrators often become perpetrators because they were victimized in another manner
Bystanders are often considered to be perpetrators as lack of action implies complicity
Ordinary People
Iris Chang notes that “All human beings are capable of committing these kinds of
atrocities – not just the Japanese or the Germans. all human beings have this capacity
for great evil if put under the right social and political circumstances”
Christopher Browning, in his book, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the
Final Solution in Poland, observed that it is seemingly small, simple factors that allow
ordinary, regular people to become killers
o Factors such as obedience to authority and peer-pressure
Japanese Soldiers were ordinary people, who were socialized and trained to become killers
Members of the Nanking International Safety Zone were ordinary people who
accomplished extraordinary things
One individual can make a difference – the Power of One
o Iris Chang’s actions in researching and writing her book the Rape of Nanking are
what brought awareness of the Nanking Massacre to the West
o Minnie Vautrin and John Rabe are examples of ordinary people whose actions
made a huge difference
How Ordinary People become Perpetrators
Dehumanization of victims
o Process of dehumanization described by Iris Chang and former Japanese
Imperial Army soldiers – soldiers were socialized to become violent and to kill
and not to think of their victims as equal humans or humans at all
Devaluation of human life
o Imperial Army training taught that the only thing of value was the Emperor of
Japan and that the greatest honour a soldier could have was to die for Japan
o Chinese were considered to be “less than ants”
Rewards for perpetrator behaviour
o Decapitation competitions covered by news papers, prestige
Orders from superior commanders with unquestioned authority
Actions sanctioned and sponsored by the State, the ruling powers of Imperial Japan;
offering a sense of validity
The euphemistic language used in genocide
Euphemisms substitute a less offensive term or phrase for one that is unpleasant or
offensive
Part of the process of dehumanization
Makes it easier for perpetrators to carry out their task
Ex: Sexual Slavery referred to as “Comfort Women” and “Comfort Stations”; Chinese
referred to as “ants”
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�Related DVD Chapters – Genocide / Prejudice / Discrimination
Chapter
Start Time
Title
1
01:00:01
“Opening Credits/Suicide”
2
01:02:40
“Cupertino & History Backgrounder”
3
01:06:02
“Iris Parents’ Story”
7
01:16:48
“Westerners in Nanking”
8
01:18:22
“Minnie Vautrin Story”
11
01:30:20
“Japanese Invasion of Nanking”
12
01:33:00
“Ono Kenji/Burning of Soldiers’ Bodies”
13
01:38:19
“Attack on Citizens/Women”
14
01:41:09
“Xia Shu Quin Survivor Story”
15
01:43:08
“Comfort Women/Lei Gui Ying”
17
01:46:51
“Jiang Genfu Survivor Story”
18
01:49:08
“Living Conditions of Survivors”
19
01:52:31
“Back Writing /Ni Cui Ping, Wu Zheng Xi, Qin Je”
20
02:03:15
“Japanese Soldiers/Kaneko Ysuji”
21
02:07:28
“John Rabe Story”
23
02:15:01
“Japanese Reaction/Forgotten Holocaust”
24
02:20:50
“Chang Zhi Qiang Survivor”
Potential Subject Connections
- Genocide
- Sociology
- History
- Psychology
- Anthropology
- Guidance
- Philosophy
- Ethics/Morality
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�Gender Issues
Objective: Students should understand
■ Sexism, Rape and Sexual Slavery
■ Sexual Slavery and Rape as tools of war
■ The Japanese Military Sexual Slavery System
Students may be at different levels of knowledge about and maturity with discussing
sexually related material. It might be advisable to begin this theme by asking more general
questions about gender inequities, the double standard (connotations of words such as "slut"
versus "stud") and about how rape is about power rather than sexual satisfaction.
Sexism: the concept that one sex or gender is superior to another because of their differences;
usually it implies that men are superior to women
Is a common factor in domestic violence, sexual prejudice, sexual discrimination and rape
Rape: forced sexual intercourse without, or against, the consent of the victim, often through
coercion, violence and/or force
Is not about sexual gratification for men, but an expression of power and domination
over the state and its citizens
Mass Rape is a Crime Against Humanity
o As defined by Rome Statue of the International Criminal Court, which is also
called International Criminal Court Statute
o Was first tried as a Crime Against Humanity by the International Criminal Tribunal
for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) by Louise Arbour,
■ Louise Arbour was the former Chief Prosecutor for the ICTY and the
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) (appointed in 1996),
she was appointed to the Supreme Court of Canada in 1999 and was the
UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (2004-2008)
Sexual Slavery: a type of slavery which includes sexual acts; involves the organized coercion of
person(s) into sexual practices
Can include forced prostitution, rape, forced pregnancy, sexual violence, etc
Both males and females are targeted, in different ways
Men are often targeted for outright killing first
Women are often targeted as sexual objects
Both suffer humiliation, degradation and abuses
Sexual Slavery and Rape as a tool of war
Organized, purposeful, systematic – sanctioned by the Imperial Japanese Army even
before the outbreak of war;
Military Sexual Slavery System expanded during the war
“Comfort Women” term used to describe Japanese Military Sexual Slaves
o Euphemistic term for sex slaves used by the Imperial Army of Japan
o As many as 200,000 women were kidnapped, tricked or sold into sexual slavery
■ Nearly 150,000 of these women were from Korea
o Women were raped, tortured and mutilated
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“Comfort Stations” were locations where Comfort Women were imprisoned, held,
tortured and raped by soldiers
The government of Japan still officially denies the implementation of the Japanese
Military Sexual Slavery
1998 United Nations Report to the United Nations Human Rights Commission details the
Japanese Military Sexual Slavery system (“Comfort Women” system) as a form of
slavery
Related DVD Chapters – Gender Issues
Chapter
Start Time
Title
8
01:18:22
“Minnie Vautrin Story”
11
01:30:20
“Japanese Invasion of Nanking”
12
01:33:00
“Ono Kenji/Burning of Soldiers’ Bodies”
13
01:38:19
“Attack on Citizens/Women”
14
01:41:09
“Xia Shu Quin Survivor Story”
15
01:43:08
“Comfort Women/Lei Gui Ying”
19
01:52:31
“Back Writing /Ni Cui Ping, Wu Zheng Xi, Qin Je”
24
02:20:50
“Chang Zhi Qiang Survivor”
Potential Subject Connections
- Sociology
- Family Studies
- Women and Gender Studies
- Civics
- History
16 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�Active Citizenship
Objective: Students should understand
■ Different levels and types of activism
■ Humanitarianism
■ The Power of One
■ Redress and Political Activism
o The San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951
o Current redress movements
Activism: intentional action to bring about change. Activism can
be social, political, economic, environmental, peace or justice oriented
involve strikes, protests, rallies, petitions, writing letters or blogging
occur locally, regionally, nationally or internationally
be individual or collective
Examples of activism include:
Iris Chang’s dedication to voicing survivor experiences through researching and writing
her book the Rape of Nanking
Survivors’ attempts to have the truth heard
Scholars in China who dedicate extra time to working on research about the Nanking
Massacre
Peace activists in Japan who continue to work for peace and reconciliation
John Rabe and members of the Nanking International Safety Zone who sent protest
letters to the Japanese embassy during the Rape of Nanking
Members of the Nanking International Safety Zone who stood up to and refused to
comply with Japanese Imperial Army orders and intimidation
Rev. McGee taking video footage of the atrocities during the massacre
The Global Alliance organizing the photo display that caused Iris to pursue her research
with such passion
Dr. Wong and members of the Association for Learning & Preserving the History of
WWII in Asia (ALPHA) organizing book tours to bring Iris Chang to Canada
Dr. Wong and the ALPHA producing Iris Chang – the Rape of Nanking docu-drama
Humanitarianism: concern about, and action to promote human welfare; often manifested
through philanthropic activities and interest in social reforms
John Rabe, Minnie Vautrin and members of the International Safety Zone Committee
were engaged in humanitarian acts of saving the lives of those in the Nanking
International Safety Zone
Dr. Norman Bethune, a Canadian physician treated both Chinese and Japanese soldiers
wounded in China during WWII
The Power of One – One individual can make a difference
Iris Chang’s actions in researching and writing her book the Rape of Nanking are what
brought awareness of the Nanking Massacre to the West
Minnie Vautrin and John Rabe are examples of ordinary people whose actions made a
huge difference
17 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�Redress and Peace Activism
San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951
o Signed between Japan and 48 other nations
o Victim nations, such as Burma, China, India, Korea and the U.S.S.R. were not
party to treaty
o Signatory nations waive claims for Japanese Reparations
o This treaty is often used as justification not to provide compensation to victims of
WWII in Asia, such as Comfort Women or Forced Slave Labourers
The United Nations Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War
Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity states that there is no time limit on war crime
atrocities
Issues of redress and compensation are still in Japanese courts to this day in 2009
o Victims seeking redress include former Comfort Women, Slave Labourers and
POWs
o As recently as March 2009 the Tokyo High Court dismissed a law suit filed by
victims of China’s Hainan province – the victims had been seeking damages and
apologies from the Japanese government for having been forced into the
Japanese Military Sexual Slavery System of “Comfort Women”
International Redress Movement for “Comfort Women”
o Many international grass-roots movements have been organized to promote the
issue of the International Redress Movement
o In March of 2007 the Japanese Prime Minister openly and publicly denied that
Japan had forced women into sexual slavery during WWII, provoking a reaction
from the international community; as a result
o Parliamentary Motions, acknowledging the extent of the Japanese Comfort
Woman Sexual Slavery system, demanding an official apology from Japan were
passed in
■ The U.S.A. in July 2007
■ The Netherlands in November 2007
■ Canada in November 2007
■ The European Union (E.U.) in December 2007
■ The Philippine in March 2008
■ South Korea in October 2008
■ Taiwan in November 2008
Toronto ALPHA – the Toronto Association for Learning & Preserving the History of WWII
in Asia – is a volunteer, community based organization formed in 1997
o ALPHA’s mission and mandate includes:
■ Ensuring the truthfulness of historical records about WWII in Asia and
promoting global awareness and recognition of this history, such that
reconciliation and peace can be achieved
■ Fostering education about humanity and racial harmony, particularly for
younger generations, with a focus on WWII atrocities in Asia
■ Promoting education about Asian WWII atrocities
■ Pursuing justice for the victims of WWII in Asia
o For more information visit www.alphaeducation.org
Organizations such as B.C. ALPHA, the Global Alliance (GA) for Preserving the History
of WWII in Asia, and many other international NGOs which have been working very hard
on issues of peace and reconciliation. New organizations like Edmonton ALPHA and
Japan ALPHA have also become active.
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�Related DVD Chapters – Active Citizenship
Chapter
Start Time
Title
5
01:12:50
“Global Alliance”
6
01:14:20
“Book deal/Research”
7
01:16:48
“Westerners in Nanking”
8
01:18:22
“Minnie Vautrin Story”
12
01:33:00
“Ono Kenji/Burning of Soldiers’ Bodies”
21
02:07:28
“John Rabe Story”
22
02:11:30
“Book Publication/Canada Alpha”
23
02:15:01
“Japanese Reaction/Forgotten Holocaust”
24
02:20:50
“Chang Zhi Qiang Survivor”
26
02:28:32
“Bataan Research”
28
02:39:09
“End Credits”
Potential Subject Connections
- Civics
- Law
- Politics
- Genocide
- Philosophy
- Ethics/Morality
19 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�Film & Video
Objective: Students should understand
■ The uses of film and video
■ The power of images (video or picture)
■ Images as a way of preserving the past
■ Rev John McGee and film footage of the Nanking Massacre
■ Documentaries and re-enactments
Images in photographs or videos can be
Powerful tools to assist in understanding and communicating
o Things seem more realistic when we can see them
Used to document events and history, to preserve the past
o Iris Chang interviewed survivors whom she had seen as children in pictures of
the Nanking Massacre – importance of images in portraying the past
Iris Chang found the photographic images of the Nanking Massacre to be haunting
o The images were important in influencing Iris Chang to write her book
o Iris used the film and images to imagine she was there, in order to better
understand the events of the massacre
Rev. John McGee and film footages of the massacre
McGee had to smuggle his footage out of Nanking
o Recognized the importance of film footage
Became an important part of the historical record about the Nanking Massacre
Documentaries and Docu-Dramas
Effective documentaries not only use footage from the time, but also use dramatic reenactments
Are these re-enactments appropriate, do they help the viewer understand and relate to
the subject?
Who decides which parts of history get put into documentaries?
How can music be used effectively in films?
o The theme song A Song for Iris was written by the actress who played Iris
Chang, it was inspired by her experiences during filming
Related DVD Chapters – Film & Video
Chapter
Start Time
Title
1
01:00:01
“Opening Credits/Suicide”
2
01:02:40
“Cupertino & History Backgrounder”
3
01:06:02
“Iris Parents’ Story”
4
01:09:42
“Cupertino /Nightmares”
5
01:12:50
“Global Alliance”
7
01:16:48
“Westerners in Nanking”
9
01:22:57
“Travel to China”
20 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�12
18
28
01:33:00
01:49:08
02:39:09
“Ono Kenji/Burning of Soldiers’ Bodies”
“Living Conditions of Survivors”
“End Credits”
Potential Subject Connections
- Film & Video
- History
- Civics
- Genocide
21 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�English / Language Arts / Writing
Objective: Students should understand
■ Research writing vs. fictional writing
■ The importance of research writing
■ Qualities and responsibility of a good research writer
■ Authenticity of sources
■ Methods of Research
■ Narrative Perspectives
■ The example of Iris Chang
Research Writing vs. Fictional Writing
Research writing: based on diligent and systematic investigation, with the responsibility of
using authenticated information, to convey factual information about events and/or actions
Fictional writing: based on imaginative narration without the responsibility of portraying
truths about reality, it can explore plausibilites
The Importance of Research Writing
Collecting all sources on a topic in one place
Helps create a more complete picture of event
Requires an authorial responsibility to the truth because information must be backed by
evidence
Qualities and Responsibilities of a Good Writer
Passion and conviction: motivated to do good research
Resourcefulness: seeks out a variety of sources
Thoroughness: considers all sources of information
Objectivity and fairness: considers all perspectives
Contextualization: offers sufficient contextual information so that event is not
misunderstood or perceived as an isolated incident
Authenticity of Sources
What makes a source authentic or reliable?
o Published – and available in a persistent form
o Accepted by academic experts
o Traceable authors
o Corroborated by other sources
o Certified by official authorities
Methods of Research
Collecting information from primary and secondary sources
o Primary sources include: diaries, artifacts, photos, physical remains, eye witness
accounts, film footages
o Secondary sources include: historian interpretation and analysis of historical
evidence
Organizing information
Verifying and corroborating when inconsistencies arise
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�Narrative Perspectives
In whose voice will the story be told?
From which perspective?
How can a writer offer more than one perspective or voice?
Quoting vs. retelling of narratives
Ex: Iris Chang’s research for the Rape of Nanking
Looked in archives
Interviewed survivors
Visited important sites
Studied photos and video footage
Tracked down diaries, Japanese soldiers, third party foreigners
Ex: Iris Chang’s book the Rape of Nanking
Included perspectives and quotes from Chinese survivors, Japanese soldiers and third
party foreigners such as members of the Safety Zone Committee
Made clear her sources of information
Offered sufficient historical context to understand the event of the Nanking Massacre
Attempted to interpret events and offer explanations for what occurred
Related DVD Chapters – English / Language Arts / Writing
Chapter
Start Time
Title
2
01:02:40
“Cupertino & History Backgrounder”
3
01:06:02
“Iris Parents’ Story”
4
01:09:42
“Cupertino /Nightmares”
5
01:12:50
“Global Alliance”
6
01:14:20
“Book deal/Research”
9
01:22:57
“Travel to China”
10
01:25:23
“Chinese Scholars”
16
01:44:55
“Affects on Iris”
19
01:52:31
“Back Writing /Ni Cui Ping, Wu Zheng Xi, Qin Je”
22
02:11:30
“Book Publication/Canada Alpha”
25
02:27:28
“Next Book Chinese in America”
26
02:28:32
“Bataan Research”
28
02:39:09
“End Credits”
Potential Subject Connections
- English
- Language Arts
- History
- Civics
- Genocide
23 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�Iris Chang’s Experiences / Responding to Emotion
Objective: Students should understand
■ Iris Chang’s motivation to write the Rape of Nanking
■ Depression and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
■ The difference between understanding and internalizing events
■ Ways of dealing with personal pain
Iris Chang’s motivation and drive to write the Rape of Nanking
Iris Chang grew up hearing accounts about how her family members lived through the war
She had nightmares around these events and realized “I also felt that had I been born in
another era, in another country, in another time I could have easily been one of those
corpses, one of those anonymous corpses in a photograph”
She felt she carried a burden, a duty to see the history of the Rape of Nanking
uncovered from obscurity
In investigating the Nanking Massacre, Iris felt that she had become a witness of the
massacre itself
o She interviewed many survivors and saw many photos of the massacre
o She internalized her experiences and the experiences of others
Depression and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Depression: a mood disorder causing a person to have feelings of sadness, loss of
interest or pleasure, disturbed sleep and appetite, low levels of energy and poor
concentration – depression affects the body, mood and thoughts
o The Public Health Agency of Canada estimates that approximately 8% of
Canadian adults will experience major depression at some point in their lifespan
o The U.S. National Institute of Mental estimates that approximately 20.9 million
American adults, or about 9.5% of the U.S. adult population, have a mood
disorder with depression in a given year in the U.S.A.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): a type of anxiety disorder that develops after an
individual has a traumatic experiences; symptoms can include depression, irritability,
nightmares, flashbacks, loss of interest in normal activities, and nervousness
Both Iris Chang and Minnie Vautrin showed signs of depression and PTSD
o They were deeply affected and traumatized by the events of the Nanking
Massacre
People suffering from depression and/or PTDS often resort to suicide – but there are
other options
There is an important difference between understanding the events of the past and
internalizing them. It is possible to understand past tragedies and to feel upset or sad about
these events without letting these feelings overtake your life
How to cope with personal pain
Constructive methods of coping can include
o Confiding in a trusted person, family member, friend or teacher
o Seeking professional assistance from a guidance councillor or doctor
24 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
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Destructive methods of coping can include
o Harming oneself
o Substance, drug or alcohol abuse
o Isolation of oneself, avoiding friends and family
Personal responses to the Rape of Nanking
Acknowledging one’s personal responses towards the Nanking Massacre is important
Often, taking action and using one’s knowledge of these events can be empowering and
help relieve feelings of anger and sadness
Examples of people who have been moved or emotionally influenced by gaining
knowledge of the Nanking Massacre include many of the grass roots activists who work
towards peace, reconciliation and redress; for example:
o The International Redress Movement for “Comfort Women”
o ALPHA Education: a volunteer, community based organization
o Organizations such as B.C. ALPHA, the Global Alliance (GA) for Preserving the
History of WWII in Asia, and many other international NGOs which have been
working very hard on these issues. New organizations like Edmonton ALPHA
and Japan ALPHA are also joining the forces.
o See the suggested theme of Active Citizenship
Related DVD Chapters – Iris Chang’s Experiences / Responding to Emotions
Chapter
Start Time
Title
1
01:00:01
“Opening Credits/Suicide”
2
01:02:40
“Cupertino & History Backgrounder”
3
01:06:02
“Iris Parents’ Story”
4
01:09:42
“Cupertino /Nightmares”
8
01:18:22
“Minnie Vautrin Story”
16
01:44:55
“Affects on Iris”
18
01:49:08
“Living Conditions of Survivors”
19
01:52:31
“Back Writing /Ni Cui Ping, Wu Zheng Xi, Qin Je”
22
02:11:30
“Book Publication/Canada Alpha”
24
02:20:50
“Chang Zhi Qiang Survivor”
25
02:27:28
“Next Book Chinese in America”
26
02:28:32
“Bataan Research”
27
02:32:03
“Iris Breakdown/Death”
28
02:39:09
“End Credits”
Potential Subject Connections
- English
- Sociology
- Psychology
- Guidance
25 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�Making Personal Connections / Family History / Current Events
Objective: Students should understand
■ Significance of family stories and personal histories
■ How to draw the line between the past & the present and the
present & the future
■ Similarities between past atrocities and current events
o The use of euphemistic language and devaluation of others
■ How to form personal responses
Family Stories and Personal Histories
Nearly everyone living in Europe and Asia during WWII was directly affected by the
events of the war
o Most families have relatives who were on these continents, or perhaps relatives
who fought during the war
Many survivors and witnesses of war, violence and atrocities do not talk about their
experiences
Often it takes many years to find the courage to voice personal stories
There may be fear of reprisal when telling personal stories; fear of rejection by family
members; fear of becoming ostracized from community or being ridiculed, or
abandoned. Also, survivors may fear that they will be perceived by others as having
been somehow “contaminated”. Many survivors may never tell their stories because of
the humiliation and trauma they have suffered.
Drawing the line between the past & the present and the present & the future
The events of the past still affect us today
o Survivors are still impacted by the effects of WWII
o Denial of the Nanking Massacre and other war atrocities by the Japanese
Government has often complicated international relationships between Asian
countries
For reconciliation between nations that were formerly enemies to happen, it is important
that the current generation not be blamed for the deeds of previous generations
Similarities between past atrocities and current events include
Dehumanization of victims
Devaluation of human life
Rewards for perpetrator behaviour
Orders from superior commanders and higher authorities
The euphemistic use of language
See the Suggested Theme of Genocide / Prejudice / Discrimination
Personal Responses
Students will have personal responses to learning about atrocities
Students may discover that they have relatives who were survivors or witnesses of such
atrocities when the discuss the topic with their family
Many of the reflection questions allow students to express these personal responses
For an example see Appendix VI - Sample Student Response
26 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�Related DVD Chapters – Making Personal Connections / Family History / Current Events
Chapter
Start Time
Title
1
01:00:01
“Opening Credits/Suicide”
2
01:02:40
“Cupertino & History Backgrounder”
3
01:06:02
“Iris Parents’ Story”
4
01:09:42
“Cupertino /Nightmares”
6
01:14:20
“Book deal/Research”
16
01:44:55
“Affects on Iris”
20
02:03:15
“Japanese Soldiers/Kaneko Ysuji”
24
02:20:50
“Chang Zhi Qiang Survivor”
26
02:28:32
“Bataan Research”
27
02:32:03
“Iris Breakdown/Death”
Potential Subject Connections
- History
- Media
- Sociology
- Psychology
- Genocide
27 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�REFLECTION QUESTIONS
It is recommended that you distribute these questions to your students prior to viewing the film.
After viewing the film, students can discuss these questions or submit responses.
While watching the video, consider these comments, thoughts and questions:
Why is it important to remember and reflect on historical events such as The Rape of
Nanking?
Why do you think we know so little about the Nanking Massacre? Why is it not written
about it in most WWII history books?
Why has the Nanking Massacre become known as the “Forgotten Holocaust”? Why are
the atrocities of WWII in Europe remembered and widely commemorated?
Who should decide what gets put into official educational curricula? Who should decide
what gets left out?
Which forces have attempted to bury this part of history and with what motivations? Which
forces are trying to bring this history to light and with what hopes?
Why has Japan never apologized or compensated victims of the Nanking Massacre and of
the other Japanese atrocities during WWII? What reasons do they have to deny the
massacre and other war crimes?
Why were the Japanese soldiers capable of committing such atrocities? What beliefs
enabled them to behave as they did? How were they trained to hate and kill?
Why is Iris Chang’s book an important best seller?
What does Iris Chang mean when she refers to the importance of believing in the “Power
of One”?
Why is it important to have multiple sources of evidence such as witness testimonies,
diaries, official reports, newspaper articles, etc? How do we judge the reliability of
sources?
Why is the use of imagery, photographs and video footage important in this documentary?
What is the impact of such depictions? Is the imagery in this film effective?
Why did McGee have to smuggle his videos out of Nanking? Why are visual/video
documentations so powerful?
“There is the injustice of the massacre; the second injustice is if we don’t know of it.” What
is your opinion about this statement?
What is your reaction to the statement that many deny that this massacre ever happened?
What is your reaction to the statement: “The Nanking massacre still affects people today.”
How can a historical event still affect us today?
28 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�
What do you think Iris Chang hoped to accomplish with her work? Who, if anybody, holds
the responsibility of continuing her efforts now that she is gone?
“There’s a much more important story here than just the horrible ways in which people
were massacred.” What is this important story and why is it so important?
Can the Japanese soldiers be at least partially excused because they were just “following
orders”?
Is it possible, after such atrocities, to move on to Peace and Reconciliation? Why or why
not and how can this be done? Why might it be important?
What is the difference between a victim and a survivor?
Why do survivors feel the need to be believed?
How is it that “ordinary people” are capable of extraordinary actions, whether they are
extraordinarily good or bad? What circumstances allow for this?
What is a hero?
What should be our responsibility in the face of atrocity? Do we have a responsibility?
What are the risks of being a hero? Are they worth it?
Write a personal response about your reactions to this film.
What is the difference between understanding the events of the past versus internalizing
them? Why is this distinction important?
Select a line from A Song for Iris and write a one page response to it (responses could be
done in musical/art/drama or written form).
Write a letter to Iris Chang about how learning about her work has impacted you.
Write a poem related to one of the themes in the film or about your feelings toward the film.
What questions would you like to ask members of the Nanking International Safety Zone
Committee like Minnie Vautrin or John Rabe?
What questions would you like to ask a Nanking Massacre victim? What questions would
you like to ask a former Japanese Imperial Army Soldier?
29 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�APPENDIX I – TIMELINE OF WWII IN ASIA
Timeline of World War II in Asia
1894-1951
1997-2008
1894
- First Sino-Japanese War begins
1895
- Shimonoseki Treaty
After defeat in Sino-Japanese War, China unwillingly cedes Taiwan to Japan and pays
financial indemnity
Japan occupies Korea
1902
- Anglo-Japanese Alliance signed
Japan & Britain agree to mutual safeguarding of their interests in Asia
Alliance is renewed in 1905 and 1911
1905
- Japan defeats Russia in Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905
- US mediates the Treaty of Portsmouth
Treaty forces Russia to give southern Manchuria to Japan
Treaty recognizes Japan as the dominant power in Korea; Korea becomes a protectorate
of Japan
- Another treaty forces China to recognize Japan’s imperialistic rights in Southern Manchuria
- Japan & US sign Taft-Katsura memorandum
Agreement recognizes Japan’s rights in Korea & US control of Philippines
1907
- Hague Conference
Hague IV – Convention Respecting the Laws & Customs of War on Land
1910
- Japan’s official annexation of Korea
1914-1918
- World War I
Japan, allied against German, occupies the Shantung Peninsula of China
1919
- Japan assumes imperial rights of Germany in China after WWI, as per the Treaty of Versailles
- Japan is given a permanent seat on the Council of the League of Nation
1926
- Hirohito becomes Emperor of Japan
1929
- Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War
1931
- Japanese Imperial Army launches a full-scale attack on Manchuria
1932
- Japan seizes Manchuria
Establishes puppet state of Manchukuo
- Japan builds biological warfare units in Japan, China & Manchuria
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�1933
- The League of Nations declares that Manchukuo is not a legitimate state
League of Nations calls for Japanese withdrawal from Manchuria
Japan withdraws from the League of Nations in protest
- Expanding from Manchuria, the Japanese Imperial Army gains control of much of Northern China
1937
- World War II begins in Asia
- July 7: “Marco Polo Bridge Incident” leads to Japan’s full-scale invasion of China
Peking (now Beijing) & Shanghai are captured
Official start of World War II in Asia
- Nov: establishment Nanking Safety Zone
- Dec 13: Chinese troops ordered to retreat from Nanking, then capital city of China; Japanese
Army enters Nanking, after days of heavy aerial bombings.
Dec 13,
1937
till
Feb 1938
- When Nanking falls the Japanese Imperial Army commits the Nanking Massacre
Approx. 300,000 massacred over “8 weeks of horror”
Nanking Safety Zone coordinated and run by the Nanking Safety Zone International
Committee saves approx. 250,000 civilians from the massacre
- Japanese Imperial Army system of Military Sexual Slavery expands
Referred to as “Comfort Women” & “Comfort Stations”
1939
- World War II begins in Europe
Germany invades Poland; the Western Allies declare war on Germany
1940
- Japan moves into northern Indo-China (now Vietnam, Laos & Cambodia)
- Japan joins the Axis Alliance with Germany & Italy
1941
- The Pacific phase of World War II beings for the Western Allies
Dec 7: Japan raids Pearl Harbor
Dec 7: British Malaya & Hong Kong are also simultaneously attacked
- Germany declares war on the US; the US officially joins the Western Allies
- Dec 25: Hong Kong falls
1,975 Canadian soldiers had been sent to defend Hong Kong earlier in 1941
290 are killed in action
1,685 are captured and interned by the Japanese Military
Many die from forced slave labour & disease in prisoner camps
1942
- Forced relocation & internment of Japanese-Americans and Japanese-Canadians begins in
Canada & the U.S.A.
- By May, Japan has gained control over wide territories
Territories under Japanese control include: Hong Kong, Philippines, Vietnam, Laos,
Cambodia, Thailand, Burma (now Mayanmar), Malaya (now Singapore and Malaysia),
Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and many other Pacific islands
1945
- May 8: Germany surrenders to Western Allies in Europe
European phase of World War II ends
- Aug 6: First atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima
- Aug 8: The Soviet Union declares war on Japan
- Aug 9: Second atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki
- Aug 15: Japan surrenders
- World War II officially ends
31 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�1945-1949
- Nuremburg Trials & Subsequent Nuremburg Proceedings in Germany
24 Class A War Criminals tried in Nuremburg + 185 War Criminals tried in 12 Subsequent
Nuremburg Proceedings, for Crimes Against Humanity & War Crimes
Legal precedents set for Human Rights & Genocide Conventions
1946-1948
- International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) is established
Tribunal established to prosecutes those responsible for war & war crimes
Tribunal documents Massacres, Death Marches, Forced Slave Labour, POW Conditions,
and other war atrocities & war crimes
Only 28 of 80 Class A War Criminals tried for War Crimes before official end in 1948
1951
- The San Francisco Peace Treaty is signed between Japan & 48 other nations
Burma, China, India, Korea & the Soviet Union not party to treaty
Signatory nations waive claims for Japanese Reparations
~ ~ ~ COLLECTIVE AMNESIA ABOUT WWII ATROCITIES IN ASIA ~ ~ ~
1997
- Iris Chang’s The Rape of Nanking book is published – it becomes an international best seller
- Toronto ALPHA & BC ALPHA established in Canada
2001
- B.C. ALPHA & B.C. Ministry of Education publishes the first English resource guide “Human Rights
in the Asia Pacific 1931-1945: Social Responsibility & Global Citizenship”
2005
- Ontario Ministry of Education includes WWII Asian History in Grade 10-12 curriculum
- Toronto ALPHA publishes & distributes the resource guide “The Search for Global Citizenship: The
Violation of Human Rights in Asia 1931-1945” to all Ontario Secondary Schools
2007
- Nov 28: Canadian House of Parliament unanimously passes a Motion calling on Japan to
acknowledge the facts of history related to Japanese Military Sexual Slavery in WWII, urging
Japan to officially and formally apologize to the “Comfort Women” survivors
- Similar motions passed in the US Congress, Dutch Parliament and European Union Parliament
2008
- TDSB unanimously passes a motion encouraging teaching & learning activities in recognition of
the “comfort women” victims of Japanese Military Sexual Slavery + purchases Iris Chang - the
Rape of Nanking DVDs for Toronto Secondary Schools
32 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�APPENDIX II – MAPS & FIGURES
A) Extent of Japanese Control
Suggested maps that depict the extent of Japanese Control in the Asian-Pacific Theatre of
WWII can be found at:
http://student.britannica.com/comptons/art-55223
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1693.html
http://www.fasttrackteaching.com/map16Japanese.html
http://www.uky.edu/Kaleidoscope/fall2002/goins/maps/WWIIa/WWIIa_large.htm
B) Asia
Suggested maps of Asia can be found at:
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/maps/asia/china/
http://www.zenithpumps.com/sales/asia_pacific.htm
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�C) Nanking and International Safety Zone
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�APPENDIX III – MEMBERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SAFETY ZONE
COMMITTEE
The International Safety Zone was a neutral area established inside of Nanking in 1937
to shelter Chinese refugees whose lives had been threatened and homes destroyed by the
invading Japanese Imperial Army. Many of the Nanking Safety Zone committee members also
served on The International Red Cross Committee of Nanking. These brave individuals who
opted to stay behind and help included: Germans, Americans, Austrians, Brits and Russians.
When Nanking fell on Dec 13, 1937, the Safety Zone housed over 250,000 refugees.
During the massacre the committee members found ways to provide these refugees with the
basic needs of food, shelter, and medical care. It is unclear how many western nationals
remained in Nanking because different individuals and groups
left the city at different times; some during the fall of Nanking,
People who served on:
some during the massacre and some after the massacre
The International Safety Zone
ended.
Committee for Nanking and/or
The International Red Cross
Committee of Nanking included:
John Rabe
John Rabe was a German business man and the leader of
John Rabe
the Nazi Party in Nanking. He had resided in China since 1908
Dr. Lewis S. C. Smythe
and in Nanking since 1931, working for the Siemens China
P.H. Munro-Faure
Company. He became Chair of the International Safety Zone
Rev. John Magee
Committee. During the massacre he housed refugees in his
P.R. Shields
private residence and sent protest letters to the Japanese
Embassy. To most of the Chinese in Nanking, Rabe was a
J.M. Hansen
hero and became known as “the living Buddha of Nanking”.
G. Schultze-Pantin
Iris Chang has referred to Rabe as the “Oskar Schindler of
Iver Mackay
China”.
J.V.
Pickering
When Rabe returned to Germany, he wrote to Adolf Hitler,
Eduard Sperling
telling him about what he had witnessed in Nanking, hoping
Miner Searle Bates
Hitler would prevent further atrocities by the Japanese Military.
Two days later, the Gestapo (Nazi State Police) arrested him,
Rev. W. Plumer Mills
but Rabe was later released and warned never to talk
J. Lean
publically or publish anything about the events that took place
Dr. C.S. Trimmer
in Nanking. Rabe lived in poverty for the last three years of his
Charles Riggs
life, and was supported by the food and money sent to him
Robert O. Wilson
every month by the residents of Nanking in appreciation of his
Minnie Vautrin
heroic acts.
Minnie Vautrin
Minnie Vautrin, an American missionary, devoted her adult
life to the education of Chinese women at Jinling Girls College
in Nanking and to helping the poor. During the Massacre, she
turned the college into a sanctuary for 10,000 women and
worked tirelessly to help establish the Nanking International
Safety Zone. Vautrin’s only weapons to repel the Japanese
soldiers from the college were an American flag, prayers, wits
and immense courage and moral strength.
Rev. Ernest H. Forster
George Ashmore Fitch
Christian Kroeger
Mrs. Paul de Witt Twinem
James McCallum
Li Chuin-nan
Walter Lowe
Pastor Shen Yu-shu
35 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�Vautrin returned to the United States in 1940. She ended her own life a few months later.
Her diaries, like Rabe’s, are a gold mine of information on the Japanese atrocities in Nanking.
After the war, the Chinese government awarded Vautrin, posthumously, “The Emblem of the
Blue Jade,” the highest national honor.
Dr. Miner Searle Bates
Dr. Miner Searle Bates was a missionary and professor of history at the University of
Nanking. He became an organizing member of the Nanking International Safety Zone
Committee. Bates wrote many letters of protest to the Japanese Embassy soon after the fall of
Nanking and throughout the massacre. He also risked his life on many occasions attempting to
protect and save the lives of the Chinese people in the Safety Zone.
Rev. John Gillespie McGee
Rev. Magee, an American missionary working in Nanking, was also a member of the
Nanking International Safety Zone Committee. He recorded film footage of the Japanese
atrocities during the Rape of Nanking and smuggled them out at great personal risk. His footage
later became key evidence at the International War Crimes Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE).
This visual documentation, along with the diaries of other Westerners are invaluable archives
that cannot be refuted.
Dr. Robert O. Wilson
Dr. Robert Wilson was an American physician, born in Nanking, China to Protestant
missionaries. He obtained his medical degree at Harvard Medical School in 1929 and returned
to Nanking. Along with Minnie Vautrin and John Rabe, he was instrumental in establishing the
International Safety Zone. During the Nanking Massacre, Dr. Wilson was the only surgeon
remaining in the city and treating victims. After the surrender of Japan, Dr. Wilson testified at the
International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) about the atrocities he had witnessed
during the Nanking Massacre.
36 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�APPENDIX IV – WHEN DID WORLD WAR II START?
The Beginning?
The question “When did World War II start?” is as much a question of “Where did World
War II start?” The most common answer is September 1, 1939 when Nazi Germany invaded
Poland, prompting Britain and France to declare war on Germany on September 3, 1939.
However, these dates refer exclusively to the start of the war in the European Theater of WWII.
As the curtain was opening for war in the European Theater, war in the Asian-Pacific Theater
was already in full-swing.
For some countries, like Korea, WWII was a direct continuation of events that started
almost three decades before the war began in Europe. Complicating matters further, many
invasions that “started” WWII were undeclared. So, for example, while the U.S.S.R. had been
fighting skirmishes with the Japanese since the invasion of Manchuria in 1937, their declaration
of war against Japan was not official until 1945 (and then only a week before Japan announced
its surrender!). Germany only declared war officially against the U.S.A. All other German
invasions which “started” WWII were undeclared, such as the German invasions of Poland and
Czechoslovakia in 1939; the invasion of France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg,
Denmark and Norway in 1940; and the invasion of the U.S.S.R. and Baltic States in 1941.
The following is a brief explanation of when and where WWII started for Korea,
Manchuria, China, Japan, Europe, and the United States. Distinctly different, and equally valid,
answers can be given to the question “when did WWII start” for each country.
Korea – 1910
For Korea, WWII was the culmination of 35 years of Japanese occupation. The JapanKorea Annexation Treaty signed on August 22, 1910 formalized Japan’s control over Korea and
made Korea a colony of Japan.
Manchuria – 1931
Since the start of the 19th Century, Manchuria had been divided into Spheres of
Influence between Russia, China and Japan. Japanese military presence in mainland Asia
started with an invasion of Manchuria on September 18, 1931; many consider this to be part of
an initial Japanese invasion of China.
China & Japan – 1937
World War II in China, and many other parts of Asia, is often referred to as “The Second
Sino-Japanese War”. The first Sino-Japanese War ended with China’s defeat, ceding influence
in Korea to Japan, in 1895. It is commonly accepted that WWII in Asia started when Japan
launched a full-scale invasion of China after the Marco-Polo Bridge incident, on July 7, 1937.
Although the Chinese had been fighting the Japanese invasion since 1937, China did not
officially declare war on Japan until December 9, 1941, when simultaneously declaring war on
Germany and Italy. Other common terms for WWII in China include “the 8-Year War of
Resistance Against Japan” which dates the War as starting in 1937 and “the 15-Year War of
Resistance Against Japan” which dates the war as starting with the Japanese invasion of
Manchuria in 1931.
Europe – 1939
For Poland and Germany, WWII began when the German Army invaded Poland, with
Blitzkrieg tactics, on September 1, 1939. Two days later, on September 3, 1939, Britain and
France declared war on Germany. As Allies of Britain, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa
37 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�officially entered WWII when Britain did, as did British colonies, such as India. Canada declared
war on Germany one week later, on September 10, 1939.
U.S.S.R. – 1941
According to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Non-Aggression Pact, the U.S.S.R. occupied
Poland as Nazi Germany invaded in 1939, but was not officially at war until June 22, 1941 when
the German Army launched a surprise invasion on the U.S.S.R. Despite the fact that Russian
troops had been fighting Japanese invasion of Manchuria since 1937, resulting in a border war
in 1939, the U.S.S.R. signed a non-aggression pact with Japan in 1941 and did not officially
declare war on Japan until December 8, 1945. In Russia (formerly the U.S.S.R.) WWII is
referred to as “The Great Patriotic War”.
United States of America (U.S.A.) – 1941
Although the U.S.A. had been supplying the British, French, Chinese and Soviet war
efforts with the Lend-Lease Program, they did not officially enter WWII until Japan attacked
Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. On December 8, 1941 the U.S.A., along with Britain,
France and Canada, declared war on Japan. On December 11, 1941, as Japan’s allies,
Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S.A. The U.S.A. responded by declaring war on
Germany and Italy on same day.
The End?
Given the discrepancy over the question of “When did WWII start?” one might be
tempted to consider, “When did WWII end?” Again, distinctly different, and equally valid,
answers exist. In the European Theater of WWII, Germany officially surrendered to the Allies in
the European Theatre on May 8, 1945: VE-Day. War in the Asian-Pacific Theater did not
officially end until Japan’s announcement of surrender on August 15, 1945 and Japan’s formal
surrender ceremony on September 2, 1945. Both dates are often referred to as VJ-Day.
Even though wars may have (differing) official start and end dates, the toll of war on
countries, POWs, soldiers and civilians cannot be measured by days or even by years. Official
dates belie the human suffering that often starts before the fighting breaks out and continues
after the fighting ends. Recovery from WWII would take years for everyone; and for many, the
impact of WWII still affects them today.
Significant Dates for the Start of World War II
August 22 1910
– Japan officially annexes Korea
September 18 1931
– Japan invades Manchuria
July
7 1937
– Japan launches full-scale invasion into China
September
1 1939
– Germany invades Poland
September
3 1939
– Britain, France, British Colonies and Allies declare war on Germany
September 10 1939
– Canada declares war on Germany
May 20 1940
– Germany invades France, Belgium, the Netherlands & Luxemburg,
April
9 1940
– Germany invades Denmark & Norway
June 22 1941
– Germany invades the U.S.S.R. and Baltic States
December
7 1941
– Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, Hong Kong & Malaya
December
8 1941
– the U.S.A., Britain, France, Canada, British Colonies and Allies
officially declare war on Japan
December
9 1941
– China officially declares war on Japan, Germany & Italy
December 11 1941
– Germany & Italy officially declare war on the U.S.A. and
the U.S.A. officially declares war on Germany & Italy
August
8 1945
– U.S.S.R. officially declares war on Japan
38 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�APPENDIX V – A SONG FOR IRIS LYRICS
Touched by the conviction of Iris Chang, actress Olivia Cheng wrote a passionate poem
about Iris immediately after playing the role of Iris in Nanking. This poem in turn inspired Yo-Yo
Sham, who knew very little about the history until she joined the production crew in China, to
write a song for the poem. The beautiful melody and voice of Yo-Yo, and the emotional lyric
turned into a heartfelt theme song.
A Song for Iris
Theme Song for Iris Chang - the Rape of Nanking
Writen and Composed by: Olivia Cheng, Yo Yo Sham, Guy Zerafa, Dave Klotz and Joey Sun Ming Ou
Singer: Yo Yo Sham
A1
Just a little child
they took it all away
Your blood, your life
Your trust, your faith
You died reborn in pain
Red as the river,
looming large the gate
Darkness in your heart,
drowning in their hate
I’ll dedicate my life to get
your stories told
CHORUS
I’ll give voice to the voiceless
Silenced for too long
Crying out for justice
Trust me with your pain
I’ll take it as my own
I’ll fight to get the truth heard
My weapon is my word
A2
One more time, remember
The horror and the pain
They raped you of your pride
robbed of your dignity
Speak of how they stole your peace
screaming for them to cease
Repeat CHORUS
BRIDGE
It’s done. The pages filled
With blood and tears
Not in vain
The world will finally hear
CHORUS 2
I gave voice to the voiceless
Now I’m silencing my own
What I’ve left behind, Remember
Find my light Keep it bright
pass it on.
In you my spirit lives on
(Pause)
Find my light
pass it on
39 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�APPENDIX VI – SAMPLE STUDENT RESPONSE
The following is a sample of a student essay, written in 2008 for a Grade 10 History Class in
Ontario, Canada, as a response to reflection questions about Iris Chang and the Rape of
Nanking
The Rape of Nanking – History Reflection
Jessie Peng
When the renowned philosopher George Santayana stated, "Those who do not remember the past
are condemned to repeat," never would one have used this prophetic sentence to describe the
result of the Nanking massacre in 1937. Through Iris Chang's bestselling novel, The Rape of
Nanking, she retells the story of one of history's most brutal genocidal war crimes, where over
the course of 6 weeks, the Japanese Imperial Army raped, tortured, and ultimately, murdered
over 300, 000 Chinese civilians in Nanking, China. Although there has never been another
incident parallel to this one over the last 7 decades, by denying the existence of or by being
unaware of this atrocity, we are in a way, committing an injustice as egregious as the massacre
itself.
When I first saw the movie based on this book in my social sciences class, I'm ashamed to admit
that I was in a state of utter shock, as I knew little of the matter beforehand. Considering that I
am of Chinese decent, this was extremely pathetic. Throughout my years in school, I
encountered, repeatedly, the horrific effects of the Holocaust and World War II, and yet, when an
opportunity to learn more about my own culture finally arose, I was at a complete loss.
Following that day, I went home to consult my parents about this issue, but what I heard only
made me more confused and angry. At the time of the second Sino-Japanese War, my
grandparents on both sides were in already their late-childhood, and remembered clearly of the
chaotic situation China faced during this time. In fact, my great-grandmother even died at the
hands of a Japanese soldier, and my grandfather later went on to attend the University of
Nanking in the late 1940s. With such strong family ties to this event, I wondered why my family
was so hesitant about discussing this topic, and more so, why had I been so oblivious to this
episode in history.
Deprived of such answers, I quickly borrowed the book, and read it thoroughly within 3 days.
Above all, the many people who deny that this massacre has ever happened in Japan sparked up
a sense of irritation and disappointment within me. In the video, in-between the shots and
photographs of near-decapitated, panic-stricken Nanking civilians and diary excerpts of thirdparty witnesses, was an interview with one of the mayors of a city in Japan. He kept on saying
that the massacre was "pure fabrication of the Chinese authorities," and that "it was a propaganda
strategy used to disgrace the Japanese government." Upon hearing this, I was appalled. How
could Japan, one of the leading nations in economic and technological developments today, fall
behind so much on its sense of moral integrity? With the victims' poignant yet horrifying stories
in-mind, how could the mayor insist candidly that "their experiences were all made-up and
prescripted by authority figure "? In my opinion, the very reason the world is still being kept in
the dark about this issue and why the Nanking massacre has disappeared altogether from history
40 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�textbooks is simply because the Japanese cannot bring themselves to acknowledge the truth. The
controversial debate between "what really happened" in Nanking has prevented many people
from getting a 'definite' answer, if not an answer at all, about this critical aspect of history.
Having said that, the book also depicted the dangerous effects socialization and militaristic
cultural influences had towards the extermination of an entire city. For one, the Japanese soldiers
were in a way, just as vulnerable and victimized in the scheme of things compared to the
Chinese. They were shaped to hate by a government whose ambition to conquer eastern Asia
eventually led to the loss of hundreds of thousands of lives. From a young age in the late 1920s,
Japanese schoolchildren were enrolled into what had become a regimented and robotic education
system. Teachers were more like sadistic military officers, and often abused their students
emotionally, physically, and verbally. In Nanking, they released the many years of suffering and
anguish they once tolerated on the Chinese prisoners when a change of power shifted into their
hands. Soldiers were eventually taught that the Chinese were "less than dogs in society" and such
a belief, along with their compliance to "serve the emperor," eventually led to devastating
outcomes.
Iris Chang's book is an important bestseller simply because it sought to educate an unaware
population at large about an equally important but repressed chapter in history. By being the first
author to write a complete account of this incident in English, she has provided a glimpse of the
Nanking Massacre to the Western world in hopes that the millions of North Americans
emotionally attached to the story will help her pressure Japan into fulfilling their responsibilities
for the atrocity. Her weapon was her word; by speaking out for all of the victims, despite the
countless hate mails and death threats which followed, Iris has displayed a true sense of courage
and leadership. She hopes that one day, "Japan will confront their wartime past by making an
official apology to its victims, pay reparations to the people whose lives were destroyed in the
rampage, and educate future generations of Japanese citizens about the true facts of the
massacre." In other words, she hoped that her book will change the world for the better in the
years to come, even after her death. The education of slavery and the Holocaust has made
countries like Germany and America better because people remember the traumatic
consequences of such incidents. Thus, the same should apply to the Nanking Massacre. After all,
we must learn from history if we don't want it to happen again.
41 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�APPENDIX VII – DVD CHAPTER DIVISIONS
Chapter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Start Time
00:00:01
00:02:40
00:06:02
00:09:42
00:12:50
00:14:20
00:16:48
00:18:22
00:22:57
00:25:23
00:30:20
00:33:00
00:38:19
00:41:09
00:43:08
00:44:55
00:46:51
01:49:08
00:52:31
01:03:15
01:07:28
01:11:30
01:14:58
01:20:59
01:27:28
01:28:27
01:32:05
01:39:03
Title
“Opening Credits/Suicide”
“Cupertino & History Backgrounder”
“Iris Parents’ Story”
“Cupertino /Nightmares”
“Global Alliance”
“Book deal/Research”
“Westerners in Nanking”
“Minnie Vautrin’s Story”
“Travel to China”
“Chinese Scholars”
“Japanese Invasion of Nanking”
“Ono Kenji/Burning of Soldiers’ Bodies”
“Attack on Citizens/Women”
“Xia Shu Quin Survivor Story”
“Comfort Women/Lei Gui Ying”
“Affects on Iris”
“Jiang Genfu Survivor Story”
“Living Conditions of Survivors”
“Back Writing /Ni Cui Ping, Wu Zheng Xi, Qin Je”
“Japanese Soldiers/Kaneko Ysuji”
“John Rabe’s Story”
“Book Publication/Canada Alpha”
“Japanese Reaction/Forgotten Holocaust”
“Chang Zhi Qiang Survivor”
“Next Book Chinese in America”
“Bataan Research”
“Iris Breakdown/Death”
“End Credits”
42 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�APPENDIX VIII – SUGGESTED REFERENCES/RESOURCES
Brooks, Timothy (Ed.) 1999. Documents on the Rape of Nanking. Anne Arbor: the University of
Michigan Press.
Buruma, Iam. 1994. The Wages of Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and Japan. New York:
Farrar Straus Giroux. (See pages 112-122 for a description of the Massacre and of the
revisionist position.)
Chang, Iris. 1997. The Rape of Nanking: the Forgotten Holocaust of World War II. USA: Basic
Books.
Chengshan, Zhu, ed. 2003. Footprints of Historical Witnesses to Nanjing Massacre, Album of
“Bronze Plate Road”. China: Nanjing Press.
Fogel, Joshua A. (Editor). 2000. The Nanking Massacre in History and Historiography.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Gibney, Frank (Editor). 1995. Senso: The Japanese Remember the Pacific War. New York and
London: M.E. Sharpe.
Gruhl, Werner. 2007. Imperial Japan’s World War Two 1931-1945: New Brunswick USA:
Transaction Publishers.
Hein, Laura & Seldon, Mark (Editors). 2000. Censoring History: Citizenship and Memory in
Japan, Germany, and the United States. New York and London: M.E. Sharpe.
Hicks, George. 1997. Japan’s War Memories: Amnesia or Concealment? England: Ashgate
Publishing House.
Honda, Katsuichi. 1999. The Nanking Massacre: A Japanese Journalist Confronts Japan’s
National Shame. New York and London: M.E. Sharpe.
Kim, Suji Kwock. 2003. Notes From the Divided Country. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
University Press.
Hu, Hua-Ling. 2000. American Goddess at the Rape of Manking – the Courage of Minnie
Vautrin. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press .
International Military Tribunal for the Far East. 1981. The Tokyo War Crimes Trial, edited and
annotated by R. John Pritchard and Sonia Magbanau Zaide. New York: Garland.
Li, Peter. 2008. The Search for Justice Japanese War Crimes. New Brunswick, USA:
Transaction Publishers.
Memorial Hall of the Victims in the Nanjing Massacre by Japanese Invaders (Ed.) 2003. An
Illustrated History of the Nanjing Massacre. Published by: China Intercontinental
Press.
43 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�Rabe, John. 2000. The Good Man of Nanking: the Diaries of John Rabe. Germany: Knopf.
Shiro, Azuma. 2006. Azuma Shiro’s Diary. China: Phoenix Publishing & Media Group.
Toronto ALPHA. 2005. The Search for Global Citizenship: The Violation of Human Rights in
Asia, 1931-1945 (A Resource Guide for Ontario Teachers of Canadian and World
Studies, Grades 10-12). Toronto: Toronto ALPHA.
Toronto ALPHA. 2007. The Nanking Massacre, 70 years of Amnesia. Toronto: Toronto ALPHA.
UN Commission on Human Rights, Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against
women, its causes and consequences, Radhika Coomaraswamy., 21 January
1999, E/CN.4/1999/68/Add.3, available
at:
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b0fb4.html
Young Shi & Yin James. 1997. The Rape of Nanking, an Undeniable History in Photographs.
United States: Innovative Publishing Group.
Websites:
Amnesty International - Taiwan and South Korea call for 'comfort women' apology
http://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/news/taiwan-and-south-korea-callcomfort-women-apology-20081118
A Report on Taiwanese Comfort Women
http://newcongress.yam.org.tw/women/comfw.html
On Philipinno Comfort Women
http://www.chr.gov.ph/MAIN%20PAGES/about%20hr/advisories/abthr031-035.htm
http://www.chr.gov.ph/MAIN%20PAGES/about%20hr/advisories/pdf_files/abthr031.pdf
Online Documentary - the Nanking Atrocities
http://www.nankingatrocities.net/
Nanjing Massacre
http://www.cnd.org/njmassacre/
UN Commission on Human Rights, Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against
women, its causes and consequences, Radhika Coomaraswamy
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b0fb4.html
44 | I r i s C h a n g - t h e R a p e o f N a n k i n g D V D S t u d y G u i d e
�
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04
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Study Guide For Teachers: Iris Chang - The Rape of Nanking
Description
An account of the resource
Iris Chang was a respected humanitarian, outstanding journalist and advocate for justice. This docudrama portrays Iris Chang’s courage and unfaltering conviction to speak for those who cannot speak for themselves, while providing an accurate historical account of the 1937 Nanking Massacre. The film obtained full co-operation from Iris Chang’s parents who provided valuable information about their beloved daughter. A research team reviewed many archives on the Nanking Massacre and Iris Chang, and uncovered more than 200 boxes of Iris Chang’s research work and archives at the Hoover Institute. The research team was also able to obtain the original video tapes taken by Iris of survivors while she was in Nanking, and the original films taken by Missionary, John McGee, during the Massacre. The production team found and interviewed numerous survivors in Nanking, as well as former Japanese soldiers, right-wing revisionists, and peace activists in Japan. The television premiere of Iris Chang – the Rape of Nanking aired on Canada’s History Channel on December 13, 2007 – the 70th anniversary of the Nanking Massacre.
This study guide is theme-based instead of curriculum-based. It is intended for use internationally within any secondary school system. The guide consists of a list of recommendations on how to use this film in a classroom setting, a suggested list of teachable themes that the film relates to, and Response Questions. Appendixes of World War II Timelines, Maps, Names, Song Lyrics and References are also included.
Creator
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ALPHA Education
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ALPHA Education
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Nanjing massacre, WWII in Asia, Japanese atrocities, Human rights
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English
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Study guide for teachers
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2009
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/53432/archive/files/0e0f308f4a105cc674470ca22ca57a03.jpeg?Expires=1712793600&Signature=Otv8IRGfPUcgg3sjWpp54zrStNx7mYzLkkMfcdyr5uCJ6J7U69KtFUj2DPnnpO8T7xUGKIJvyoEkAC6fqvky9q7at8E-e0EhqcnS5RyGswrfJ1X%7EecnxXHkSLLF0DecLs9aJwyFYYsr5P7OJRWHsJ8mDXRHmDnb0S9zuqCSDkgjtiOW-EqtZeOn65Yp--FPUzIsDCBH5RXSqVz0%7EBBixL6qaYwoUl3PMTWnbU9g-pI7FjOAutkSqghQ%7EY8VfK9uGJaayknqob1MELknvtxWz1yVY7br98xT1GVKiiejWHRnJCt6O2DF5vrWb6femuGNRTrR-fc2%7EOlC2nHqYiK5bJA__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
fdccfc2abf893bd72b0505bc422fffee
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<strong>Digital Archives Project (DAP)</strong>
Description
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Research (RG)
Discussion Paper and/or discussion guide Guide (DP)
Posters (P)
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Research & Resource Development
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ALPHA Education
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04
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URL
<a href="https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1OjSkMBsXvlliAHoWxYA54O6zdKFp4GNSzWazdfLI3Js/edit?usp=sharing">View the Virtual Exhibit (Click Presentation Mode to begin)</a>
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Justice in the Age of Global Politics: The Case of Unit 731 Medical Atrocities (Virtual Exhibit)
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This is a virtual version of an actual exhibit by the Asia Pacific Peace Museum (APPM) team at ALPHA in partnership with the Unit 731 Museum at Harbin
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Asia Pacific Peace Museum (APPM)/ALPHA Education
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Unit 731, Medical atrocities
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Flora Chong, Alex Sweeney, Alissa Wang, Charmaine Ching
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https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/53432/archive/files/b96410d248232ab7b7e9ad6e55daea73.pdf?Expires=1712793600&Signature=ttRTx1EjgEJbp3AxjwbuHfLhPYejWjSL9p4USdm56vdMT3-wtdVG64SmSHfMDpcU368FGoqV9DA-xsfrLkJ5goqzp8WgZbBDEJdnSP7Tn9w7TIWF73e%7EmRINEXOzXRse7RD8jt-jPlciP264u2nMrpq3NSfiF3m3RLxiIOOPzeyI6Hv8yaKGGdoY2yHd7hbbNOkXV7Kk9BLrKUinfvLcPYe3KY6niCntUT1UT8%7EBrqUF7MIPmGapgIdWW5m36OX9Hh9dU3Cyg%7EA64R53WHrtRTI9Yb67vfPpMRoi8g8JTxl%7E1L7F6ECkk2Vwa0I7GBgf%7E0BWS09vFTv7OUigzAqQzw__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
9d09761d6dbcfb273aa25c81c797600e
PDF Text
Text
Indigenous
Concepts of Law
Unceded: Aboriginal Peoples' relationship to the land
Peace & Friendship Treaties
Within Aboriginal perspectives, these
treaties bring all the signatories together
as though related, and treats treatymaking like forming kin-based
relationships. For example, the Mi'kmaq
word for treaty is Angugamwe'l, which
means "adding to our relations."
Some Indigenous peoples
preferred to treat peace
treaties with the colonialists
as an agreement to keep a
peaceful but respectful
distance.
The Europeans viewed the
treaties as commercial
agreements and as the
transfer of of ownership and
title to land.
Indigenous understandings of
land and resource use are
fundamentally different from a
Western understandings of
exploiting natural resources.
Key Principles of Indigenous Worldview
Interconnectedness of humans
with all living species
Caretaking of land and
resources (not ownership)
Communal enjoyment and
responsibility
storytelling : ethical
indigenous perspectives
ive Justice
restorat
INFORMATION FROM: INDIGENOUS CANADA: LOOKING FORWARD, LOOKING BACK, UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA 2017
CAROLINA S. RUIZ (2020)
igenous systems of
While Ind
tice vary, there are some
jus
minant values such as:
do
Restoration
Consensus
Respect
Storytelling is a method of non-interference that
allows elders to give advice to young people without
directly telling them what to do.
This requires individuals to derive their own meaning
from the stories based on their experience and
strengthens the connection to the outcomes or
lessons.
�colonial law
& indigenous peoples
Dispossession, displacement and disconnection from indigenous lands
the first treaty : GusmeÑta: 1613
An agreement between the Dutch colonial officials and
Haudenosaunee leaders
Gusweñta is a two row wampum belt that symbolized
and recorded the agreement.
The two rows represent two vessels that embody the
two peoples, their lifeways, and travelling side-by-side
as equals down the river of life.
Royal proclamation: 1763
Issued by British Crown after its 7
year war with the French
Recognized that Indigenous people
had inhabited the land for centuries
prior to the arrival of the French and
British settlers.
Acknowledged that it wanted to
prevent further "Frauds and Abuses"
of unceded territory.
Conflicts bet
ween warring
Western
powers (Brita
in versus Fran
ce, and later
Britain versus
the new Amer
ican Republic
had a huge im
)
pact on Aborig
inal peoples'
displacement
. Over a perio
d of time,
different allia
nces were form
ed and saw
indigenous pe
oples fighting
alongside the
British agains
t American ex
pansion.
However, the
British embar
ked on a more
aggressive W
estward territ
orial expansio
following con
n
federation in
1867, in an
immigration a
nd settlement
boom.
Although Canadian courts and
Indigenous peoples disagree with
what Indigenous rights are under Sec.
35 of the Constitution Act of 1982, the
latter provisions reaffirm the
Proclamation's validity.
ous
gen
indi
into
sion
ur
ises
inc
rom
r
le
np
ett
oke
s
: br
ory
rit
ter
"civilization"
In the 18th century,
Europeans sought to
differentiate themselves
from the rest of the world.
Societies different from the
West were adjusdged as
"primitive" and backward."
The law reflected this bias
and by 1851, only groups
with a settled government
(according to colonial
standards) could hold title to
land.
This effectively
excluded indigenous
peoples from land
ownership - including
the Haudenosaunee
who already had an
established
agricultural presence.
The 1876 I
ndian Act
adopted a
of assimil
policy
ation and
undermin
indigenou
ed
s identity
and cultu
It abolishe
re.
d Indigen
ous gover
banned in
nance,
digenous
cultural p
like the 'P
ractices
otlatch' - a
tradition o
sharing an
f
d gift-givi
ng.
This mind
set would
continue t
influence
o
the state's
treatment
indigenou
of
s peoples
into the 20
century. T
th
he last Ind
ian reside
school, loc
ntial
ated in Sa
skatchew
closed in 1
an,
996.
INFORMATION FROM: INDIGENOUS CANADA: LOOKING FORWARD, LOOKING BACK, UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA 2017
CAROLINA S. RUIZ (2020)
Despite the rhetoric of the proclamation,
the British embarked on solidifying their
claim over the territory (under the threat of
American expansion) by bringing in
settlers.
Between 1776 and 1884, the arrival of new
settlers gave rise to many land disputes.
By 1867, the passage of the British North
America Act allowed lower Canada to
ignore the Royal Proclamation guidelines,
which guaranteed the Indigenous peoples'
free trade.
�indigenous peoples
& social justice
Grassroots Resistance
justice
Indigenous peop
les defend
Earth's biodivers
ity—but
they're in danger.
Comprising
less than 5% of th
e world's
population, indig
enous people
protect 80% of glo
bal
biodiversity.
Truth &
reconciliation
enous
indig
onor
h
ights
aty r
tre
GLEB RAYGOROD
ETSKY,
National Geograp
hic, 2018
the oka crisis: 1990
Following the announcement of a golf course
development project by the mayor of Oka,
Quebec on reserve land which was also a
traditional burial ground, without the prior
consultation or consent of the Mohawk people,
the community set up a protest campon a
portion of the property in the spring of 1990.
Other indigenous peoples from differenrt
reserves joined the protest and supported a
blockade. The standoff between the police,
military and the protestors lasted for 78 days.
Women elders had a lead role in the protest
and were said to have been instrumental in
avoiding confrontation. The protest gained
worlkdwide attention. Both the police and
the army were called in to disperse the
protest, but the event is generally
acknowledged to have been a catalyst for the
resurgence of indigenous identity and
resistancxe movements in Canada.
social and environmental activism
Since them, the movement has grown
into a Canada-wide movement that
supports Indigenous Rights and
organizes against projects that threaten
the environment, such as the XL
Keystone Pipeline that will stretch from
Alberta and Saskatchewan to Texas., as
wewll as the CGL Pipeline that will run
from Dawson Cereek, Alberta to Kitimat,
British Columbia.
INFORMATION FROM: HOW THE OKA CRISIS OF 1990 SPARKED THE RESURGENCE OF INDIGENOUS
IDENTITY, CBC DOCS POV, 2018
CAROLINA S. RUIZ (2020)
In 2012, Idle No More, a grassroots
indigenous protest movement was formed
by 4 women.
It was initially a response to Bill C 45 that
was set to amend the following laws
without having consulted indigenous
peoples:
Indian Act.
Navigation Protection Act (former
Navigable Waters Protection Act).
Environmental Assessment Act.
�
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A name given to the resource
<strong>Anti-Racism Toolkit</strong>
Description
An account of the resource
These resources outline the historical origins of racism, but also address contemporary manifestations of racism in North America, by drawing an emphasis on Anti-Asian racism. The toolkit features a collection of educational resources that educators can use in facilitating discussion and reflection on the issue of systemic and everyday racism.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
ALPHA Education
Subject
The topic of the resource
systemic racism, Anti-Asian racism, historical origins of racism in Canada
Dublin Core
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Indigenous Law (Posters)
Description
An account of the resource
This poster series provides an overview of Indigenous concepts of law, Social Justice, and background of Colonial law.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Carolina S. Ruiz, Research and Resource Development Associate
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
ALPHA Education
Subject
The topic of the resource
Indigenous Law
-
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RESOURCES FROM ALPHA EDUCATION'S
UNEQUAL TREATIES PROJECT
NOITACUDE STHGIR
NAMUH GNIZINOLOCED
THROUGH CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES IN ASIAN HISTORY
2019/2020
RESEARCH & RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT @ALPHA EDUCATION
�T
E Q U A L T R E A T IE S P R O JE C
THE UN
STNETNOC
The resources included here were
written by law student interns for
ALPHA Education. The hope is that
these materials will aid teachers
interested in developing a unit, or
in teaching and integrating
lessons about colonialism as it
affected Asian countries and
peoples.
Introduction/Project Rationale by Carolina S. Ruiz, Research
and Resource Development Associate@ALPHA
Treaty Summaries
The Treaty of Nanking: 1842 by Jonathan Hou
The Treaty of Kanagawa: 1854 by Jonathan Hou
The Treaty of Shimonoseki: 1895 by Austin Ray
The Boxer Protocol: 1901 by Austin Ray
Brief Essays outlining the Treaties' Historical Context
The Treaty of Shimonoseki and The Boxer Protocol: Early
Imperial Japanese Expansion, by Austin Ray
Above detail from the painting
or the Qi court by William
Alexander, an artist appointed to
record Lord Macartney’s
embassy to China., 1793-1794
The Treaty of Nanking and the Treaty of Kanagawa: Western
Imperialism comes to China and Japan by Jonathan Hou
�1
Teaching about Asia in North America has been persistently problematic
because of the problem of eurocentrism, which often leads in the failure to
include or a tendency to marginalize North American links to Asia, Africa, Latin
America, and the Caribbean (Price, 2011, 2). Eurocentrism in history pertains to
the presumed centrality and dominance of Europe in global historical affairs.
This perspective carries with it assumptions about the purported superiority of
Europe over the rest of the world. Nakip adds: “It is the assumption that since
Europe grew richer and more powerful than all other societies it is “superior”
to them; its perspective, therefore, ought to be privileged over all others.”
(Nakip: 2014)
Compared to the United States, Canadian history writing leaves out, even more, when
it comes to the story of World War II. Depictions of Canada’s past tend to be Atlanticcentered and focused on European immigrant experience, which both displaces First
Nations peoples and Canadian links to the Pacific. However, such attempts to correct
Eurocentric narratives have met resistance as well as accusations of “killing” or
diluting Canadian history. (Price: 2011)
Below: The 8 power
Alliance (Detail of
Japanese soldier)
Inset: Full Photograph
taken by Captain C.F.
O’Keefe.
Contrary to such fears, introducing more globally balanced and cross-cultural
and historical content into the curriculum can actually impart important life
skills and develop the capacities of Canadian students, which can help them to
become more globally informed, culturally competent, and sensitive citizens.
Exposing students to multiple perspectives and encouraging them to take a
historical perspective as they make sense of their own heritage can help
broaden their understanding of the world around them.
�2
ANIHC
NI MSILAIREPMI
NRETSEW
Britain extracted favorable
trade conditions from China
in the treaty. China had to
pay an indemnity of
twenty-one million dollars.
Britain established
consulates in these cities.
In addition, China ceded
Hong Kong Island to Britain.
YRAMMUS
By Jonathan Yi Jiang Hou, Pro Bono
Students Canada, 2019
THE TREATY OF NANKING
(1842)
The Treaty of Nanking was signed in
1842 after China’s defeat against
Britain in the Opium War. Britain
started planning for war in 1839, in
response to Lin Zexu’s confiscation
of opium from British merchants.
Charles Elliott, the Chief
Superintendent, suggested to Lord
Palmerston that Britain needed to
wage war for revenge and establish
a colony that would provide safety
for British merchants. Britain
ultimately declared war and its
victory compelled China to sign the
treaty. The treaty marked the
beginning of Western imperialism’s
impact on Chinese sovereignty.
Political Cartoon by Henri Meyer, 1898
�3
Britain extracted favorable trade conditions from China in the treaty. China had to pay an
indemnity of twenty-one million dollars. In addition to Guangzhou (Canton), the government
opened the ports of Xiamen (Amoy), Fuzhou (Foochow), Ningbo (Ningpo), and Shanghai for
trade and Britain established consulates in these cities. In addition, China ceded Hong Kong
Island to Britain. The treaty abolished the Hong system and China promised moderate duties
on British goods. China also agreed to release British subjects in captivity and grant amnesty
to Chinese subjects who had helped the British. In return, Britain would withdraw its troops
from Nanjing (Nanking), the Grand Canal, and Zhenhai (Chinhai) after receiving six million
dollars. It would keep its troops in Gulangyu (Koolangsoo) and Zhoushan (Chusan) until China
paid off all indemnities.
The British government was very pleased with the treaty as it addressed the problems that
Britain faced in its trade with China. China, however, resented the Treaty of Nanjing and its
subsequent treaties with Western powers. It was not ready to accept Western international
law and continued to hold onto its own worldview. Notably, diplomatic representation in
Beijing was only established after 1858, as China saw its presence in the capital as a challenge
to its tributary system.
Political Cartoons satirizing Imperialist expansion from
Puck Magazine (1871-1918).
�4
Detail of the Nagasaki Harbor and Dejima Island. Artwork from Ryosenji Treasure Museum. The Kurofune Art Collection
(Shimoda: Ryosenji Temple)
TSEW EHT OT PU
SNEPO NAPAJ
The Japanese became very
concerned about the growing
foreign presence in the country
after the treaty adopted.
YRAMMUS
By Jonathan Yi Jiang Hou, Pro Bono
Students Canada, 2019
The Treaty of Kanagawa, signed by Japan and the
United States of America (USA) in 1854, opened Japan
to the rest of the world. Commodore Matthew C.
Perry arrived in Japan in July 1853 on the USS
Mississippi in order to open Japanese ports to
American ships.
He demonstrated the force of his “black ships” in
order to compel the Tokugawa Bakufu to accept
President Fillmore’s letter. Perry returned in
February 1854 and the two parties signed the treaty.
�5
Although the treaty did not deal with trade relations between the two countries, it gave the
USA considerable privilege in Japan. Perry was very concerned with the rights and privileges of
Americans in Japan, as he stated that “[t]he Americans will never submit to the restrictions
which have been imposed upon the Dutch and Chinese...” The treaty opened the ports of
Shimoda and Hakodate to American ships, allowed them to purchase necessary commodities,
and required Japan to help shipwrecked sailors. Due to the most-favored-nation clause, the
United States was also entitled to all future concessions made by Japan to other nations. In
addition, the United States would open a consulate in Shimoda. Townsend Harris would
become the first US consul general in Japan.
George Feifer suggests that Perry merely unlocked Japan’s door with the Treaty of Kanagawa.
American merchants in China thought that the Treaty of Kanagawa merely secured essentials
for American ships, while the Japanese were concerned about the growing foreign presence in
the country. Harris’s negotiation for the Treaty of Amity and Commerce in 1858 showed that
both the populace and imperial court were concerned about the disturbance of Japan’s
traditions and laws. The bakufu’s submission to the US demands ultimately damaged its
reputation in Japan and led to greater political instability.
“Portrait of Perry, a North American,”
woodblock print, ca. 1854 (left)
Nagasaki Prefecture Collection
�THE TREATY OF
SHIMONOSEKI
(1895)
6
1mage: 930 Commemorative Postcard: Karafuto (southern Sakhalin), Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Korea, Taiwan,
the Kurile Islands and the Kwantung Leased Territory (southern Liaoning) with the Imperial residence (Tokyo) in the
center. East Asia Image Collection, Michael Lewis Taiwan Postcard Collection, Lafayette College.
NOITAZILAIRTSUDNI
S'NAPAJ
The Treaty of Shimonoseki marked the
ascension of Japanese power in East
Asia. This treaty also outlines how
China figured in Japan's rapid
industrialization.
YRAMMUS
By Austin Ray, Pro Bono Students Canada, 2019
The Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed
between Imperial Japan and Qing China in
1895, at the end of the First Sino-Japanese
War. The war was primarily waged
primarily as a struggle for suzerainty over
Korea. For centuries China had been
considered the leading cultural and political
power in East Asia but the Japanese victory
in the First Sino-Japanese War marked a
shift in the balance of power towards the
rapidly-industrializing Japan.
The Treaty of Shimonoseki was the most
damaging treaty signed by China in the 19th
century. The treaty affirmed Japan’s
ascendancy in East Asia and the nation
managed to extract significant concessions
from China, including the independence of
Korea.
�7
Korea had formerly been a Chinese tributary state, meaning that it had symbolically
acknowledged the supremacy of China in exchange for legitimacy and good relations with its
powerful neighbor. Korea’s independence was short-lived, as it would effectively become a
Japanese protectorate following the Russo-Japanese War before being fully annexed by Japan
in 1910. There were also significant financial reparations imposed on China by Japan, as well as
concessions to Japanese citizens in China and the opening of ports to Japanese businesses,
similar to previous agreements reached with Western Powers.
The most significant condition of the treaty was Article 2, which ceded territory to Japan,
notably Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula. The annexation of Liaodong by Japan directly
conflicted with Russian imperial interests, which led to the Triple Intervention by Russia,
Germany, and France. These nations put diplomatic pressure on Japan to exchange the
Liaodong Peninsula for an enlarged indemnity payment, to which Japan grudgingly acceded.
Shortly after the return of Liaodong to China, Russia moved in to secure its interests in the
area, sowing the seeds for the Russo-Japanese War a decade later.
The Treaty of Shimonoseki marked the ascension of Japanese power in East Asia. Although
Japan was able to aggressively assert its colonial interests, it was not yet strong enough to
challenge multiple Western Powers at once. This growth of power would continue, leading to
the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War, the first major military victory of an Asian
state over a Western Power in the modern era.
Photos of members of Korea's rebels : The Righteous army of Jeongmi (1907)
The photos were taken by F.A. McKenzie, a Canadian Journalist who supported Korean independence from
Japanese colonialism.
�8
The 8 power Alliance (Detail of Japanese
soldier) Inset: Full Photograph taken by
Captain C.F. O’Keefe.
The Boxer Protocol of 1901 brought an end
to the Boxer Rebellion, an anti-foreigner
uprising that broke out in China in 1899.
During the rebellion, an Eight-Nation
Alliance was formed between all major
Western Powers and Japan to protect their
various interests in China. The Boxer
Protocol imposed several conditions on
China such as an indemnity payment as
well as the execution of specific Chinese
officials. The Alliance forced China to allow
foreigners to occupy certain parts of the
country, destroy several Chinese forts, and
prohibit the importation of arms into the
country for two years. The Qing emperor
was also forced to apologize to the
emperors of Germany and Japan for the
deaths of two of their officials, and even
erect a commemorative arch for the
German victim, Baron von Ketteler.
The real damage of the Boxer Protocol was
to the prestige and legitimacy of the Qing
government, which would be eventually
toppled in the Xinhai Revolution of 1912. The
Xinhai Revolution established the Republic
of China but failed to end the unrest in the
country, with the central government
struggling to reign in factionalism and
assert control over all of China until 1949.
The Boxer Protocol also marked the further
increase of Japanese influence in East Asia.
Japan contributed by far the most soldiers
of any nation to the alliance. Japan’s victory
in the Boxer Rebellion built upon their
previous victory in the First Sino-Japanese
War and solidified Japanese influence in the
region. A few years later, in 1904 Japan and
Russia finally clashed over their conflicting
imperial interests in Manchuria and Korea.
The resulting Japanese victory stunned the
world and shifted the balance of power,
making Japan the pre-eminent power in
East Asia.
�ESSAY
9
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
By Jonathan Yi Jiang Hou, Pro Bono Students Canada, 2019
In this essay, Jonathan outlines the
historical context of two key treaties
that marked the beginning of
Origins of the Opium War
Before the Opium War, China’s Qing Dynasty only
conducted trade with other nations (including
Western Imperialism in China (1842)
Western nations) on the basis of the tribute system.
and Japan (1854).
China’s tribute system reflected a hierarchy that
placed China at the top and placed other countries
(particularly its Asian neighbors) beneath it as
The Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) marked the
beginning of Western imperialism in China and the
decline of the Qing Dynasty’s authority. Following
the Qing’s bold measures to suppress the opium
trade, the British went to war with China and
declared the first Opium War (1839-1842). A second
Opium War would follow in 1860. The Treaty of
Nanking increased Britain’s presence in China and
China ended up subsequently signing more unequal
treaties.
tributary states. Notably, Japan challenged this
hierarchy and had already ended its tributary
relationship with China in 1549. Western powers
objected to this system, claiming that it was at odds
with the concept of “equality between nations.” This
conflict between worldviews was the key reason
why George Macartney’s mission on behalf of the
British Crown in 1792 failed to achieve its objective of
expanding British trade in China. (Chan: 2014)
NANKING AND KANAGAWA
�ESSAY
01
While some opium use already existed in China prior
From his perspective, the lack of security for British
to the British trade, by the time that the Qing
merchants in the upheaval of the status quo became
authority started taking the social and economic
the justification for war.
impact of the widespread trade in opium seriously,
opium use in China had reached alarming rates that
Lin Zexu’s letter to Queen Victoria indicated that
even the majority of its once-proud Manchu soldiers
China considered Britain’s opium trade as an
had become addicted to it.
application of double standards. Lin was aware that
Britain forbade the smoking of opium and
The British started trading opium in the early 1800s
questioned why the British Empire would allow
when they found it difficult to sustain the rising
opium to be produced in India and then sold in
costs of importing goods from China (tea, silks, and
China. He attempted to convince Queen Victoria to
porcelain) – commodities that they had to pay for in
think about the morality of the trade, saying that
gold and silver. By sourcing opium from India, the
“[n]aturally you would not wish to give unto others
British East India Company raised the silver they
what you yourself do not want.” He also highlighted
needed for their imports. The trade grew and even
the advantages Britain received in its trade with
encouraged American speculators to engage in it.
China. While Britain depended on China for goods
such as tea, silk, and chinaware, British goods were
In 1839, Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu ordered
only “toys” that were not necessary for daily life. For
British merchants to surrender their opium, confined
China, Britain’s profits from its trade relied on the
them in the factories in Canton (Guangzhou), and
benevolence of the Chinese emperor (Teng &
compelled them to sign a bond promising not to
Fairbank: 1954). Lin’s letter suggested that the Qing
bring any more opium to China (Costin: 1937).
government’s drastic steps to suppress the opium
trade were completely legitimate. Although laws
Charles Elliott, the Chief Superintendent, pushed for
prohibiting the opium trade were not strictly
a British response. He advised Lord Palmerston, the
enforced before Lin entered the picture, China still
British Foreign Secretary, that there must be “the
retained the right to enforce these laws.
very prompt and powerful interference of Her
Majesty’s government for the just vindication of all
The Treaty of Nanking
wrongs, and the effectual prevention of crime and
wretchedness by permanent settlement (Costin:
The Opium War ended with the defeat of China and
1937).
it was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanking. China
was forced to cede Hong Kong Island to Britain in
Elliott believed that British merchants needed a safe
perpetuity and to open the ports of Canton
colony protected by British law. The British
(Guangdong), Amoy (Xiamen), Foochow (Fuzhou),
government ultimately waged war in order to
Ningpo (Ningbo), and Shanghai to British trade. In
achieve these objectives. Palmerston objected to the
addition, China was compelled to pay an indemnity
arbitrary imprisonment of British merchants by Lin
of 21 million dollars, to release all captured British
since Chinese officials had previously been tolerating
subjects, and to grant amnesty to Chinese subjects
the illegal opium trade Costin: 1937).
who helped the British forces. In return, Britain
NANKING AND KANAGAWA
�ESSAY
11
withdrew its troops from Nanking (Nanjing), the
Eventually, however, China granted diplomatic
Grand Canal, and Chinhai (Zhenhai) after China
presence in the capital by signing the Treaty of
made its first payment of 6 million dollars. But the
Tianjin in 1858, although it still did not accept the
British retained Koolangsoo (Gulangyu) and Chusan
Western notion of international law.
(Zhoushan), subject to China’s completion of
payments. By securing amnesty for Chinese subjects
Britain’s victory in the Opium War led to the
who supported Britain during the war, the treaty
establishment of a colony in Hong Kong Island and
interfered with the Chinese judicial system and
the opening of five ports for trade. The Treaty of
portrayed the war as a just war.
Nanking would be the first of many treaties that
gave Western imperial powers considerable privilege
The Treaty's Impact
in China.
After securing Hong Kong Island as a colony, Britain
extended its sovereignty and laws to China’s coast.
Hong Kong soon became a place where people
could retreat to safety and avoid the arbitrary
enforcement of Chinese law. The colony also allowed
Britain to maintain greater control over its subjects,
as it became easier to enforce British law on the
Chinese coast. Sir Henry Pottinger was very pleased
with the treaty, as Britain now had “a settlement as
an Emporium for our trade and a place from which
Her Majesty’s subjects in China may be alike
protected and controlled.” In 1843, Britain also
obtained extraterritorial jurisdiction over its subjects
in China in the Treaty of the Bogue (Chan: 2014).
China lost control over the fate of British subjects
who violated Chinese laws.
The Qing government resented the treaties because
they were forcefully imposed on China and they
challenged China’s view of its relationship with the
rest of the world. In the Treaty of Nanking, China did
not grant Britain the right to establish an embassy in
Beijing, since a foreign presence in the capital would
symbolically challenge the tribute system.
Le Gateau des Rois… et des Empereurs [In China - the
Cake of Kings... and of Emperors] Political Cartoon by
Henri Meyer, published in Le Petit Journal, January 16,
1898.
NANKING AND KANAGAWA
�21
BIBLIOGRAPHY
TREATY OF NANKING
Chan, Phil C. W. “China’s Approaches to International
Pottinger, Henry. Henry Pottinger to George
Law since the Opium War.” Leiden Journal of
Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen, August 29,
International Law 27, no. 4 (December 2014): 859-
1842. In Foreign Office, 17/57. Quoted in W.C. Costin.
892.
Great Britain and China, 1833-1860. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1937, 101-102.
Costin, W.C. Great Britain, and China, 1833-1860.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937.
Temple, Henry John, 3rd Viscount Palmerston. Henry
John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston to Charles
Derks, Hans. History of the Opium Problem. Leiden,
Elliott (no. 16 enclosed in no. 19. The original no. 16
The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
was recalled), November 4, 1839, in Foreign Office,
https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004225893.
17/37. Quoted in W.C. Costin. Great Britain and China,
1833-1860. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937, 60.
Elliot, Charles. Charles Elliot to Henry John Temple,
3rd Viscount Palmerston, April 6, 1839. In British
Treaty Between Her Majesty and the Emperor of
Parliamentary Papers, 1840, xxxvi, no. 148.
China, Signed, in the English and Chinese
Languages, at Nanking, August 29, 1842. With Other
Lin, Zexu. “Letter of Advice to Queen Victoria.” From
Documents Relating Thereto., 1844, No. 521.
Ssuyu Teng and John Fairbank. China’s Response to
the West. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
Zheng, Yangwen. "Opium in China." Oxford Research
1954. Reprinted in Sources of World History, Volume
Encyclopedia, Asian History. Last modified March
II, edited by Mark A. Kishlansky, 266-69. New York:
2018.https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.
Harper Collins College Publishers, 1995.
013.149.
�ESSAY
31
The Treaty of Kanagawa
Japan eventually softened its hostile policy after it
saw the fate of Qing China in the Opium War,
The arrival of the American Commodore Matthew
realizing that the policy could lead to a conflict with
Perry in Japan with a flotilla of black ships
the West. In 1842, the Edict for the Provision of Fuel
(gunboats) led to the opening of Japan’s ports and
and Water permitted foreign ships to be supplied
the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854. This unequal treaty
with food, fuel, and water. Subsequently, the
eventually led to further agreements between the
American government sent out Commodore James
two countries that developed their trade
Biddle in 1846 and Captain John H. Aulick in 1851 to
relationships and facilitated other Western colonial
establish relations with Japan. Biddle ultimately
powers’ advance into Japan. However, resentment
failed in his mission because of Japan’s refusal to
towards a growing foreign presence established by
negotiate, as well as the outbreak of the Mexican-
the agreements eroded the authority of the ruling
American war. Aulick, however, had conflicts with
Tokugawa shogunate in Japan, which eventually
his captains and was relieved by President Millard
collapsed in 1868.
Fillmore of his command.
Prior American Attempts to Establish
Commodore Matthew C. Perry’s Arrival in Japan
Relations with Japan
Perry became responsible for the mission to Japan in
March 1852. On July 8, 1853, he arrived at the coast of
Long before Commodore Perry’s arrival, the
Uraga on the USS Susquehanna. Perry demanded to
Tokugawa shogunate attempted to keep Japan
the Japanese that he wanted a high-ranking official
secluded and free of Western influence. In 1636,
to deliver a letter from President Fillmore to the
Japan issued five sakoku decrees (locking up the
Japanese Emperor. Otherwise, he would land in Edo
country), which prevented most foreigners (except
in order to deliver the letter. Perry’s firm stance and
the Chinese, Dutch, and Koreans) from entering the
concern for rankings indicated his belief that the
country while prohibiting Japanese subjects from
mission’s success depended on making a strong
leaving. In 1825, the bakufu passed a law named the
impression on the Japanese and maintaining the
Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels, which noted that
dignity of his country. Despite Perry’s threats, he was
foreign ships approaching Japan’s coastline would
actually under orders from President Franklin Pierce
be shelled. In 1837, the USA sent out an expedition
not to fire unless it was for self-defense. Japan was
led by Charles W. King under the merchant ship
not aware of this, and the sight of American
Morrison, but it was shelled by the Japanese.
warships ultimately compelled Japan to accept the
letter at Kurihama, slightly south of Uraga, on July 14.
The USA, however, was very interested in
The letter was delivered to the Tokugawa shogunate,
establishing relations with Japan for the purposes of
rather than the powerless Japanese Emperor.
trade. Japan was a convenient place for American
whalers to repair their ships and to obtain coal, food,
Perry left Japan on July 17, promising to return in the
and drinking water
spring of 1854 with a larger flotilla. He also informed
the Japanese that American ships could reach Japan
NANKING AND KANAGAWA
�ESSAY
41
within 18-20 days, warning them to stop treating
after the Treaty of Kanagawa was signed. The Treaty
Americans with hostility. After he returned to Japan
did not provide substantial positive benefits for
on February 13, 1854, the Treaty of Kanagawa was
Japan and was considered an embarrassment for
signed on March 31. Japan opened the ports of
the Tokugawa shogunate. After Harris arrived in
Shimoda and Hakodate for American ships,
Japan, Japanese officials did not treat him very well
established areas where Americans had the freedom
and made it clear that his presence in Shimoda was
of movement, and promised to supply commodities
unwanted. Shimoda’s residents were warned to be
such as wood, water, provisions, and coal. In
careful about the Americans, while foreign traders
addition, it promised to rescue American
received blame for the “insufficient profit from sales
shipwrecked sailors, permitted trade under
of Japanese wares.”
temporary Japanese regulations, and allowed US
consuls or agents to reside in Shimoda. The two
Disagreement over how to respond to growing
countries would also enter into deliberations if they
foreign incursion heightened a conflict between the
wanted to arrange business or trade other sorts of
shogunate and the emperor’s court. While the
goods. Significantly, the treaty also included a most-
shogunate did not wish to provoke the West,
favored-nation clause. Any privileges or advantages
Emperor Komei (with the support of dissenting
granted by Japan to other nations would also be
samurai clans) objected to the shogunate’s
granted to the USA.
measures. The authority of the shogunate was now
being eroded due to the unpopularity of its
The Treaty's Impact
decisions. In this way, Perry’s mission to Japan, the
Treaty of Kanagawa, and the subsequent unequal
The USA achieved its objective of establishing
treaties had significant impacts on the Japanese
relations with Japan, but not everybody was pleased
government and politics.
with it. The treaty only secured essential supplies for
American ships. In fact, trade relationships between
The shogunate’s decision to cooperate with the
the countries only expanded after Townsend Harris,
Americans, in its bid to preserve the peace,
the US consul general to Japan, helped to negotiate
frustrated those who considered the submission to
the US-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce. In this
American demands and the intrusion of foreigners
sense, Perry merely unlocked Japan’s door with the
on Japanese territory unacceptable. Eventually, the
Treaty of Kanagawa, but it was the US-Japan Treaty
Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown in 1868,
of Amity and Commerce that truly opened the door
marking the beginning of the Meiji Restoration,
to Japan. Nonetheless, the Treaty of Kanagawa
which dramatically transformed Japan into one of
marked the end of Japan’s seclusion and there were
the world’s great powers.
Americans who were delighted by the new
opportunity to explore Japan without fearing for
their lives.
However, the Japanese became very concerned
about the growing foreign presence in the country
NANKING AND KANAGAWA
�51
BIBLIOGRAPHY
TREATY OF KANAGAWA
Feifer, George. Breaking Open Japan: Commodore
Statler, Oliver. Shimoda Story. Tokyo: Charles Tuttle,
Perry, Lord Abe, and American Imperialism in 1853.
1971. Quoted in George Feifer. Breaking Open Japan:
New York: Smithsonian Books/Collins, 2006.
Commodore Perry, Lord Abe, and American
Imperialism in 1853. New York: Smithsonian
Gowen, Herbert H. Five Foreigners in Japan. New
Books/Collins, 2006, 277.
York: Fleming H. Revell, 1936. Quoted in George
Feifer. Breaking Open Japan: Commodore Perry,
Walworth, Arthur. Black Ships Off Japan: The Story of
Lord Abe, and American Imperialism in 1853. New
Commodore Perry’s Expedition. Hamden, CT: Archon
York: Smithsonian Books/Collins, 2006, 279.
Books, 1966. Quoted in George Feifer. Breaking Open
Japan: Commodore Perry, Lord Abe, and American
Minohara, Tosh, and Kaoru Iokibe. “America
Imperialism in 1853. New York: Smithsonian
Encounters Japan, 1836-94.” In The History of US-
Books/Collins, 2006, 277.
Japan Relations: From Perry to the Present, edited by
Makoto Iokibe, English translation edited by Tosh
Wiley, Peter Booth, with Korogi Ichiro. Yankees in the
Minohara, 3-22. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
Land of the Gods: Commodore Perry and the
Opening of Japan. New York: Viking, 1990.
Neumann, William L. America Encounters Japan:
From Perry to MacArthur. Baltimore, MD: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1963. Quoted in George
Feifer. Breaking Open Japan: Commodore Perry,
Lord Abe, and American Imperialism in 1853. New
York: Smithsonian Books/Collins, 2006, 277.
Perry, Matthew Calbraith. Narrative of the Expedition
of an American Squadron to the China Seas and
Japan, performed in the years, 1852, 1853, and 1854,
under the command of Commodore M. C. Perry,
United States Navy, by Order of the Government of
the United States. Vol. 1. Washington: Beverley
Tucker Senate Printer, 1856. Quoted in Peter Booth
Wiley with Korogi Ichiro. Yankees in the Land of the
Gods: Commodore Perry and the Opening of Japan.
New York: Viking, 1990, 329-330.
NANKING AND KANAGAWA
�ESSAY
61
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
By Austin Ray, Pro Bono Students Canada, 2019
In this essay, Austin outlines the
The Treaty of Shimonoseki and the Boxer Protocol,
historical context of two key
two treaties that illustrate Japan’s rise to power as a
treaties that were pivotal to Japan's
major player on the world stage, provide a window
into an important historical moment in global
shift into a fast-rising economic
history when Japan reached a turning point. At the
and military power in the 19th
turn of the century, Japan was at a crossroads. It had
attained fast-paced industrialization wrought by the
century.
immense transformations undertaken in the Meiji
Introduction
era, a strategy it had embarked on to counter
Western domination. As Japan rose to major power
Starting with the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan
status in a world already largely carved up into
began to take a more aggressive approach in its
separate spheres of influence by the longer-standing
international affairs. Its Imperial expansionist aims
colonial powers of Europe and an emerging power,
became clearer as the decades wore on and would
America, it increasingly came to rely on aggressive
eventually lead it into direct conflict with other Asian
foreign policy to cement its own standing in the
countries as well as its rivals in colonial expansion –
world. The drive to emulate empire-building (the
Western Imperialist powers. Japan’s expansionist
same Western impulse it had resisted beginning in
agenda led to its opportunistic participation in the
the 1850s) ultimately pushed Japan on its path of
First World War, its invasion of Manchuria, a second
military-led expansion. Japan initially set its sights on
war with China, the bombing of Pearl Harbour, and
Korea and China, a move that put it in the crosshairs
ultimately motivated its most ambitious
of competing for Imperialist powers and eventually
undertaking: the occupation of Southeast Asian and
set it on the course towards war.
the Pacific countries. The roots of this imperial
ambition can be traced to key developments at the
end of the nineteenth century.
�ESSAY
71
The Treaty of Shimonoseki, the Boxer protocol, and
In order to modernize and effectively counter
their surrounding circumstances provide a glimpse
Western domination, Japan looked to the West for
into the birth of a nascent Imperial Japan.
inspiration. The revolutionary Japanese agenda
“drew inspiration from a fervent curiosity about
Euro-American technology and ideas”. In the 1870s
The Opening of Japan
some of the most powerful figures in the new
On July 8, 1853, the American Commodore, Mathew
Japanese government spent eighteen months
C. Perry delivered his government’s request to the
traveling through the United States and Europe. The
Japanese for access to its ports. Perry famously
Iwakura Mission, as it has come to be known, had
delivered this request to the Japanese accompanied
three objectives: “first, to negotiate a revision of
by a squadron of four black gunships with a promise
unequal treaties; second, to observe, investigate, and
to return with more gunboats the following year.
learn from other advanced countries for the
Although Japan had a closed-door policy to the West
purposes of domestic reform; and third, to enhance
for over two and a half centuries prior to Perry’s
friendship among nations.”
arrival, some Dutch traders had been permitted to
conduct business through the port of Nagasaki.
Although the mission failed to renegotiate the
Through their pursuit of Rangaku (Dutch learning),
treaties they succeeded in their second objective.
the Japanese kept abreast of developments in the
Andrew Gordon notes that the “economic power of
West and some of their scholars were well versed in
modern industry and the social power of the
Dutch. On top of this, they were also aware of China’s
educated citizens and subjects of the Western
territorial losses to the British after the First Opium
nation-states impressed the mission profoundly” and
War in 1842. When Commodore Perry delivered on
this led to the widespread adoption of Western
his promise the following year, the Japanese ended
institutions and ideas in Japan.
up granting the Americans access to two ports. Five
additional Japanese ports were opened to foreigners
Early Imperial Japanese Expansion
in Japan from 1859 to 1863 as naval commanders
from Britain and Russia followed Perry’s example.
One of the issues facing Japan as it sought to
modernize itself was how to fuel this massive effort.
Following the British led alliance’s bombardment of
Japan possessed relatively sparse natural resources
its most strategic ports (Kagoshima and later,
and had to rely heavily on imports. The drive to
Shimonoseki) in 1862-1863, a conflict sparked by a
create a modern nation went hand in hand with a
diplomatic row over Japan’s refusal to pay indemnity
search for the resources to accomplish this task.
for an attack on a British subject, the Japanese
Much like the Europeans before them, this search
seriously contemplated their vulnerability to foreign
took the Japanese beyond their own borders. Early
incursions. The treaty that Japan was forced to sign
Japanese imperial expansion was focused on
at the conclusion of the conflict eventually led to a
Manchuria and the Liadong peninsula in China
succession of unequal treaties.
which bordered Korea to the East and Russia to the
north. These resource-rich regions were essential to
SHIMONOSEKI AND THE BOXER PROTOCOL
�ESSAY
81
the maintenance of Japanese industry and thus the
The Japanese press and political parties
modernized Japanese military as well.
“wholeheartedly welcomed the new treaties” with
minimal reservations.
Japanese leaders in the latter half of the nineteenth
century possessed ambiguous attitudes towards
Japan Imposes its Own Unequal Treaties
foreign relations in Asia. The Japanese leadership
“sometimes called for an Asia-wide (or “pan-Asian”)
The subsequent peace agreement between the
solidarity against the predatory imperialism of the
parties, the Treaty of Shimonoseki, was the most
Western powers” but yet “at the same time, the 1870s
damaging accord signed by China in the 19th
saw the first clear signs of a high-handed Asian
century. To begin with, the treaty forced China to
diplomacy baked by a scornful attitude that placed
cede valuable commercial concessions and was
Japan above its Asian neighbors” with the Japanese
required to pay an extraordinary indemnity of 360
invasion of Taiwan in 1874. Although Japan did not
million yen to Japan. To put this in perspective, this
make any territorial gains, “Japan’s rulers not only
sum constituted “about four and a half times Japan’s
established a precedent for gunboat diplomacy but
annual national budget of the year before the war.”
also articulated among themselves the concept of a
Moreover, the treaty made Japanese “aspirations for
Japanese mission to bring ‘civilization’ to the rest of
an area of advantage well beyond Korea” clear.
Asia.” The Japanese “vision of Asian unity placed
Beyond the massive financial burden that the treaty
Japan in charge, as tutor and military hegemon.”
placed on China, the Qing government was forced to
cede Formosa (Taiwan), the Pescadores, and the
Despite the Japanese expedition to Taiwan, its most
Liaodong peninsula to Japan. While Japan
important foreign project in the 1870s and 1880’s
maintained that the peninsula was needed for the
was Korea which meant competing with China for
defense of Korea, Russia “saw it as a threat to her
influence in the region. This political and diplomatic
own route to China through Manchuria.”
confrontation eventually escalated to a full-blown
war between China and Japan in 1894. The Sino-
Accordingly, in April 1895 the Russian representative
Japanese war ended in “complete Japanese victory
to Tokyo, supported by those of France and
by April 1895.” The defeat of Qing China “prompted
Germany, ‘advised’ Japan “to return the territory to
competition among Western imperial powers to
China.” Since Japan could not hope to stand up to
carve out spheres of influence in a weakened China,
the alliance of three major powers, it grudgingly
while Japan in Western eyes came out of the war
accepted these terms. In this sense, the ‘Triple
with vastly increased prestige as the model
Intervention’ was “a savage reminder that half a
modernizer of the non-Western world.” This period
century’s work had still not put Japan in a position to
also marked the end of the unequal treaties
ignore or reject the ‘advice’ of one of the major
between Japan and the Western powers, as they
powers.”
each renegotiated the terms of their previous
agreements.
SHIMONOSEKI AND THE BOXER PROTOCOL
�ESSAY
91
The shock of the intervention “engendered a mood
decade later. Among the Western powers “there was
of bitterness” in Japan and encouraged the Japanese
a general impression abroad that an inevitable
leadership to pursue a policy of rearmament
consequence of the Boxer affair must be the break-
“designed to ensure that on any future occasion
up of China, the expectation being that when this
indignity could be properly resented.” At the turn of
occurred China would be split into four regions.” In
the century, “Western institutions and technologies
spite of the fact that Japan’s military contribution to
were sources of strength, but the West and
the alliance was as large “as the forces of all the
Westerners remained a menacing presence” for
other powers combined” the four-part division of
Japan.
China did not envision an enlarged role for Japan.
Instead, the interests of France, Britain, Russia, and
Following its national embarrassment from the
Germany continued to dominate the postwar
Triple Intervention, “Japanese leaders responded
negotiations.
with several initiatives to regain control in Korea and
to establish themselves as an imperial power in
But because “partition required agreement among
Asia.” Japan saw an opportunity in the alliance that
the powers,” China’s division was not forthcoming.
responded to the Boxer Rebellion and anti-foreigner
Russia retained most of its claims over Manchuria on
and anti-colonial uprising which broke out in China
the pretext that “Boxers threatened the railway
at the turn of the century.
installations there” presenting Japan with a
challenge to its position in Korea. This move
In 1900-01, “Japan sent ten thousand troops to China
“provoked anxiety in London as well as Tokyo and
– the largest single national contingent – to join the
created suspicion, not untouched by envy, even in
multinational force” that quelled the uprising. This
Berlin.” With the threat of the Boxers suppressed the
international commitment confirmed, “Japan’s
great powers once again resumed their competition
status as an acceptable, if still a junior member of
for influence in China.
the club of civilized powers.” Japan was able to join
the “subsequent peace conference as an equal to the
Rivalry with Russia and the Annexation of Korea
other powers and won the right to station a ‘peacekeeping force’ in the vicinity of Peking.”
While Japan occupied a dominant role in Korea
throughout the end of the nineteenth century, it did
The Boxer Protocol, the peace treaty which was
not go by unchallenged. Korean leaders “continued
drawn up after the rebellion was quashed,
to play foreign powers against each other by turning
“represented in the case of the Western powers the
to Russia for help.” Eventually, “the Russians came to
high-water mark of their interference in Chinese
rival the Japanese position in Korea.” This rivalry with
domestic affairs.” From the Chinese perspective, the
Russia, a great power, caused Japan to look to
Boxer Protocol “was an instrument of revenge and
Russia’s greatest imperial rival – Britain – for support.
humiliation.” The terms were harsh and would
Britain, shedding its policy of ‘Splendid Isolation,’
irreparably damage the credibility of the Qing
and in an effort to check Russia’s expansion into the
dynasty, and contribute to its overthrow roughly a
Far East, entered into an alliance with the Japanese
SHIMONOSEKI AND THE BOXER PROTOCOL
�ESSAY
02
in 1902. The British recognized Japan’s special
imagination.” Around the world, to peoples chafing
interests in Korea and “each nation pledged to aid
under European domination, “Japan’s victory over
the other if Russia and a fourth party attacked either
Russia was invoked by modernizers and anti-
one.” With a “colony in Taiwan, troops in Peking, and
imperialist activists as an inspiring harbinger of their
an alliance with the British, Japan had secured a
own possibilities of nation-building and
place as one of Asia’s imperial powers.”
independence from the West.” Far from being a war
for freedom, morals, or liberation, however, it was a
Japanese leadership was divided on how to respond
war for imperial expansion. Less than three decades
to Russia at this point in time and in the meantime,
later, some of the same Asian peoples whose
continued using diplomacy. Following the Boxer
imaginations were captured by Japanese victory
uprising, Russian policy in Asia “though erratic,
against Russia would find themselves at the
tended to reflect the influence of progressively
receiving end of Japan’s empire-building.
adventurous imperial advisers.” When it rebuffed the
Japanese government’s diplomatic efforts, Japan
decided to secure its position in Korea and take
Manchuria by force. It declared war on Russia. The
Russo-Japanese War was Japan’s “second major
RECOMMENDED
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military struggle over Korea in a decade.” Although
there were some notable victories for the Japanese,
Photographs by Felice Beato
the war stood in stark contrast to the Sino-Japanese
Historical Photographs of China
War just a decade earlier. Neither side emerged the
undisputed victor and “aside from territorial rights
on the southern half of the virtually uninhabited
Visualizing Cultures by MIT
Sakhalin Island, Japan emerged with no outright
gains of land and no financial compensation.” This
Puck Magazine Archives by the
became a cause of growing resentment within
University of Pennsylvania
Japan. Nevertheless, Japan was now firmly in control
of Korea, and in 1910, it annexed Korea outright as its
colony. Despite the mixed results of the war, Japan
About Frederick A. McKenzie
was able to defeat a great power in its own right
further cementing international recognition of its
meteoric rise as a global power. Reaction to “Japan’s
emergence as an imperial power ranged from
outrage to
SHIMONOSEKI AND THE BOXER PROTOCOL
�12
BIBLIOGRAPHY
TREATY OF SHIMONOSEKI AND
THE BOXER PROTOCOL
Beasley, W G. The Rise of Modern Japan. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.
Dolan, Ronald E, and Robert L. Worden. Japan: A Country Study. Washington, D.C: Federal Research
Division, Library of Congress, 1992.
Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present. Oxford University
Press, 2014.
Hane, Mikiso. Modern Japan: A Historical Survey. Boulder: Westview Press, 1992.
Hawks, Francis L. Commodore Perry and the Opening of Japan: Narrative of the Expedition of an
American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, 1852-1854: the Official Report of the Expedition to
Japan. Nonsuch, 2005.
Jansen, Marius B. The Making of Modern Japan. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University
Press, 2000.
Okagaki, Tomoko. The Logic of Conformity: Japan’s Entry into International Society. University of
Toronto Press, 2013.
Storry, Richard. Japan and the Decline of the West in Asia, 1894-1943. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979.
Royal Navy ship destroying a
Chinese flotilla in front of
Hong Kong during the Opium
War. Edward Duncan, 1843. ©
National Maritime Museum,
London.
SHIMONOSEKI AND THE BOXER PROTOCOL
�These resources can help educate students
about the legal and historical bases of
institutionalized racism in Canadian society,
as well as other Western contexts. While not
a substitute for textbooks, these resources
can complement Canadian educators'
already existing courses and lessons in
furtherance of Human Rights Education and
Anti-Racism Education.
To see more resources from ALPHA
Education, please visit our website at:
https://www.alphaeducation.org/educatorresources
See also:
https://edresources.omeka.net/collections/
show/5
This resource was created for ALPHA
Education by law students from the
University of Toronto Chapter of Pro Bono
Students Canada (PBSC) in the Fall of
2019.
ALPHA Education would like to thank the
PBSC for its continuing partnership with
ALPHA, We especially thank Austin Ray
and Jonathan Hou for doing research,
summarizing the treaties and writing the
essays that make up this resource.
�
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<strong>Digital Archives Project (DAP)</strong>
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04
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Decolonizing Human Rights Education through Critical Perspectives in Asian History (Resources from the Unequal Treaty Series Project) (2019-2020)
Description
An account of the resource
This resource summarizes four unequal treaties of import from 1842-1901. The Treaty of Nanking (1842) and the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) saw the advent of Western Imperialism in China and Japan respectively. Subsequently, the Shimonoseki Treaty (1895) and the Boxer Protocol (1901) saw the emergence of Japan as an economic and military super power during the 19th century. Summaries of the treaties are followed by short essays that outline the historical context, the impact, and the historical significance of the treaties.
Creator
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Austin Ray and Jonathan Hou, PBSC (University of Toronto, Faculty of Law), ALPHA Education Volunteers 2019
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ALPHA Education
Subject
The topic of the resource
Unequal Treaties
-
https://d1y502jg6fpugt.cloudfront.net/53432/archive/files/d08eaf387c1ba6cb5b8dca0664f26fac.mp4?Expires=1712793600&Signature=S9rgGqBTGmopVdVCtAKwj3NJ2Rk4WrNHH7Z7BX8fmOo71OMytSefuv6IfJ8tTAjkhiqQqsw-FYuelLDRnXSD71ffR3pDpuK%7EEXKh0RxLw45LdWOGjVAX3xyL0QXXz7h1QI8WahWWJm0O5CDhqbPFYKQnE8GqIR5NleovJiMKV0g8s%7EfxwWJzExruVkM4DGv%7EdypsvVLcEsjMCYC7g7xoKUT2P4cExyXaKdVPNby97xwH2Yb2VFCQQLOlZDju0mnUZU0ObEugH%7EByehBn%7E3Id%7EUEOzh%7EEkna6ap-QK12iqjJegWK-OL8py6pkyXwRKKpHSB2DWJKB1NCt6W99YAZ%7E6w__&Key-Pair-Id=K6UGZS9ZTDSZM
e6fce1b26b51ecc10b7a9f5f48ff6947
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<strong>Anti-Racism Toolkit</strong>
Description
An account of the resource
These resources outline the historical origins of racism, but also address contemporary manifestations of racism in North America, by drawing an emphasis on Anti-Asian racism. The toolkit features a collection of educational resources that educators can use in facilitating discussion and reflection on the issue of systemic and everyday racism.
Publisher
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ALPHA Education
Subject
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systemic racism, Anti-Asian racism, historical origins of racism in Canada
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The Komagata Maru
Description
An account of the resource
On May 23, 1914, the Komagata Maru sailed into Vancouver Harbour from Hong Kong via Mainland China and Japan. On board were 376 South Asian immigrants, all British citizens, wishing to settle in Canada. This short video explains the Supreme Court of Canada's decision to bar British subjects of South Asian descent from entering Canada - a tragic event that led to untold suffering, starvation, and senseless deaths.
Creator
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Jun Hu, Pro Bono Students of Canada Volunteer, University of Toronto Faculty of Law (2020)
Publisher
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ALPHA Education